Stress and Illness A Review of Literature

Question: Discuss a review of literature on stress and illness? Answer: Stress is a condition which put the functioning of different organs of the human body at stake. In the past and in recent years extensive research studies have been conducted on the effects of stress on the human body and on the mental processes of human beings. Most of the studies conducted on stress have found that there is a complex relationship between stress and the development of certain ailments in individuals suffering from excessive stress. Though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress is the bodys response to any sort of demand for change and often it is caused by both good and bad experiences (Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, n.d.). As a natural reaction to stress the human body secretes some specific chemicals and this secretion sometimes makes the body vulnerable to certain ailments. Psychological effects of excessive stress can be detrimental to the wellbeing of the person experiencing chronic stress. The fight or flight instinctive response is usual in cases of coping with stress and in the course of such response some chemical changes take place within the body which can either provide some short-lived benefits or can give rise to some specific illnesses in the long run (PBS, 2011). Considering the definitions of stress it can be said that, stress is a physiological response to a stressor, or an adverse circumstance in the environment leading to sympathetic nervous system activation, commonly known as the fight-or-flight response (Keefer , 2008). Stress also denotes the bodys way of responding to any kind of threat (Segal et al., 2015). When an individual feels threatened, his/her nervous system starts responding to the threat by releasing specific hormones that are meant for helping the body cope with stress and such hormones include adrenaline and cortisol hormones which help the body to safeguard vital functions in emergency conditions (Segal et al., 2015). Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion of specific illnesses. Stress deteriorates the immunity system of human body and this gives rise to some other diseases. In the article, Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry, Suzanne C. Segerstrom and Gregory E. Miller (2004) have stressed on the relationship between stress and illnesses. Conducting a meta-analysis of more than 300 empirical articles discussing the relationship between psychological stress and the deterioration of human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have concluded that excessive stress often results in down-regulation of some specific immunity functions. Chronic stressors, according to Segerstrom and Miller (2004) are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral im munity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that in the course of coping with chronic stress, individuals are often faced with the problem of deteriorated immunity system and age and other physical vulnerabilities often add to the process of deterioration making the emergence of some specific illnesses imminent. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out, referring to the research studies conducted in the past on the relationship between psychological stress and illness, that, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Moreover, there is a behavioral perspective of such relationship too. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have cited that during stressful events some individuals tend to get engaged in certain behaviors like alcohol use which again can deteriorate the immune system of the body making it easy for viruses and bacteria to enter the body and cause diseases. Considering this relationship between stress and illnesses, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that behavior should be considered as a pathway that links stress with the immune system. Segerstrom and Millers findings can be related to the information provided by American Heart Association. The American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that, though much more research work is needed to establish a direct relationship between stress and cardiovascular disorders, there are ample evidences to prove the fact that stress gives rise to behaviors which, if sustained for long, can surely contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases. In this regard the American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that fact that, stress may affect behaviors and factors that increase heart disease risk: high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, smoking, physical inactivity and overeating. The American Heart Association (2014) has also revealed that, Some people may choose to drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarette to manage their chronic stress, however these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage artery walls. Referring to studies conducted by Marshall et al. and Chiappelli et al. in 1998 and 1994 respectively, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that chronic stress has the potential to alter the patterns of cytokine secretion and this causes the suppression of Th1 cytokines which are responsible for activating cellular immunity which is meant for providing defense agains several kinds of infection and some specific kinds of neoplastic diseases. As a result of such alteration and suppression the body becomes vulnerable to illnesses. Moreover, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also pointed out that such suppression renders permissive effects on the production of Th2 cytokines which have the potential to activate humoral immunity and to instigate allergy and several other autoimmune diseases. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that as such shift occurs via the effects of stress hormones such as cortisol, there is inevitably a relationship between stress and immunity-related illnesses. Amplifying the negative impact of stres s on human body and on the human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out how stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking them causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. In the article, Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease, Laurie Keefer, Ali Keshavarzian, and Ece Mutlu (2008) have emphasized the research studies conducted on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease. Focusing on present literature on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Keefer et al.(2008) have stated that, stress plays a direct role in the pathophysiology of IBD. Environmental stress, according to Keefer et al. (2004) plays an important role in enhancing IBD and though not explicitly proven due to some specific constraints, the fact that stress can instigate illnesses remains a truth. Apart from emphasizing on the relationship between stress and IBD, several research studies have also stressed the important role played by psychological stress in instigating cardiovascular diseases. Whether or not acute life event stressors play significant role in triggering coronary heart disease is a fact that needs to be researched and evaluated more, but present literature on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have hinted on the fact that acute life event stressors can actually trigger coronary heart disease (CHD) events (Bunker et al., 2003). It is to be noted in this regard that, Although the deleterious physiological effects of acute stressors as CHD triggers are well documented, the role of chronic stressors in CHD onset and prognosis remains unclear. But this doesnt mean that there is scarcity of research studies emphasizing the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases. In the research article, Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men, Macleod et al. (2002) have emphasized the relationship between psychological stress and cardiovascular d iseases. Macleod et al. (2002) have concluded that there is a weak positive association between angina admissions and stress, but there is a more strongly positive association between stress and cardiovascular conditions where admission was likely to be, to a substantial degree, discretionary or when diagnostic classification reflected non-specific symptoms or signs. Even though Macleod et al. have remained inconclusive about the direct relationship between stress and different cardiovascular diseases, it must be said that stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, and if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. Stress itself is a problem and it raises an individuals blood pressure which is not good for the body and it is also not good for the body to get exposed to stress hormones on a continuous basis (WebMD, 2014). It must be noted in this regard that, Studies also link stress to changes in the way blood clots, which makes a heart attack more likely (WebMD, 2014). The relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases has been the focus of the article, Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease by Joel E. Dimsdale (2008). Dimsdale (2008) has emphasized the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases by citing research studies which have revealed that long-term stressors impact negatively on cardiac functions. Job stress, marital unhappiness, and burden of care-giving are some of the stressful factors which can instigate cardiovascular diseases and Dimsdale (2008) has pointed out that several studies on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have revealed the fact that stress ushers pathophysiological changes which can result in sudden death, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, and abnormalities including wall motion abnormality. Stressors impact negatively upon sympathetic nervous system activities and such negative impact cause several illnesses (Dimsdale, 2008). Stress can also cause hemosta sis which can put the life of an individual at stake (Dimsdale, 2008). Dimsdale (2008) has also pointed out that, Although stressors trigger events, it is less clear that stress causes the events. There is nonetheless overwhelming evidence both for the deleterious effects of stress on the heart and for the fact that vulnerability and resilience factors play a role in amplifying or dampening those effects. Dimsdale (2008) has concluded that, there is a relationship between cardiovascular diseases and stress and when the stressor continues or when the patient continues imposing the stressor through brooding, there are adverse effects on the heart. Though considerably modifiable, stress-related cardiac risk is a fact and the relationship is also evidential in nature. Dimsdales claims can be supported by citing the points of discussion that prevails in the article, Stress and cardiovascular disease in which Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have referred to epidemiological data which shows that chronic stress has the potential to predict the occurrence of coronary heart disease on the part of specific individuals who are exposed to continuous stress. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have stated that, those individuals who are continuously exposed to work-related stress and those individuals who are exposed to social isolation have greater chances of developing coronary heart disease. Stress like the ones related to job has the potential to put individuals at risk of developing complicated heart diseases. This argument can be supported by citing the fact that, One study found a linear progression between self-reported psychological stress a nd damage to the carotid artery. The extensive Whitehall Study in the UK among government employees found that those with the least control over their work had the highest rates of heart disease (World Heart Federation, 2016). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also pointed out that, cardiac problems can be triggered by short-term emotional stress and such phenomenon is specifically observable among individuals suffering from advanced atherosclerosis. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also revealed the fact that, acute psychological stress can induce transient myocardial ischemia in patients suffering from coronary heart disease (CHD). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also stated that, long-term stress can increase the risk of recurrent CHD events and mortality. Steptoe and Kivimakis (2012) findings can be supported by citing the fact that, stress undoubtedly exerts real physiological effects on human body and it can impact negatively upon the heart (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). Sudden exposure to stress (generated through news of death of a child, etc) can actually damage arteries and it has been found that when cardiac catheterization of an individual who have suffered from anxiety attack is done, an artery that was previously open is observed to be closed (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). This proves that stress has a direct relationship to cardiovascular diseases and anx iety-related illnesses. Moreover, cardiovascular damage in the form of broken heart syndrome is also an outcome of severe and acute form of stress (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). In conclusion, though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion o f specific illnesses. Chronic stressors are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral immunity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Moreover, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking those tissues, causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. Stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, an d if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. References American Heart Association, (2014). Stress and Heart Health. [online] Available at: https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/StressManagement/HowDoesStressAffectYou/Stress-and-Heart-Health_UCM_437370_Article.jsp#.Vo0u9_l97IU [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Bunker, S., Colquhoun, D., Esler, M., Hickie, I., Hunt, D., Jelinek, V., Oldenburg, B., Peach, H., Ruth, D., Tennant, C. and Tonkin, A. (2003). "Stress" and coronary heart disease: psychosocial risk factors. The Medical Journal of Australia, [online] 178(6), pp.272-276. Available at: https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2003/178/6/stress-and-coronary-heart-disease-psychosocial-risk-factors [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Dimsdale, J. (2008). Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, [online] 51(13), pp.1237-1246. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2633295/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, (2013). Stress and your heart. [online] Available at: https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/stress-and-your-heart [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Keefer, L., Keshavarzian, A. and Mutlu, E. (2008). Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease. Journal of Crohn's and Colitis, [online] 2(3), pp.193-201. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1873994608000044 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Macleod, J., Smith, G., Heslop, P., Metcalfe, C., Carroll, D. and Hart, C. (2002). Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men. British Medical Journal. [online] Available at: https://www.bmj.com/content/324/7348/1247 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, (n.d.). UNDERSTANDING AND DEALING WITH STRESS. [online] Available at: https://www.mtstcil.org/skills/stress-definition-1.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. PBS, (n.d.). What is stress?. [online] Available at: https://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/topic/stress-and-anxiety/what-stress [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segal, J., Smith, M., Segal, R. and Robinson, L. (2015). Stress Symptoms, Signs, and Causes. [online] helpguide.org. Available at: https://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-symptoms-causes-and-effects.htm [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segerstrom, S. and Miller, G. (2004). Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, [online] 130(4), pp.601-630. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1361287/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Steptoe, A. and Kivimaki, M. (2012). Stress and cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology, [online] 9(6), pp.360-370. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22473079 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. WebMD, (2014). Heart Disease Health Center. [online] Available at: https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/stress-heart-disease-risk [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. World Heart Federation, (2016). Stress. [online] Available at: https://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/stress/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016].

Modernism in the Old Man and the Sea Essay Example For Students

Modernism in the Old Man and the Sea Essay Outline1 Introduction2 MODERNISM2.1 The Explosion of Modernism: 1910-19303 Characteristics of Modernism3.1 Stream of consciousness3.2 Internal monologue3.3 Realism as a literary technique4 Characteristics  of Realism Introduction 1. The definition of Modernism Chapter one: 1. The theory of Modernism : Broadly speaking, ‘modernism’ might be said to have been characterized by a deliberate and often radical shift away from tradition, and consequently by the use of new and innovative forms of Expression Thus, many styles in art and literature from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are markedly different from those that preceded them. The term ‘modernism’ generally covers the creative output of artists and thinkers who saw ‘traditional’ approaches to the arts, architecture, literature, religion, social organization (and even life itself) had become outdated in light of the new economic, social and political circumstances of a by now fully industrialized society. Amid rapid social change and significant developments in science (including the social sciences), modernists found themselves alienated from what might be termed Victorian morality and convention. They duly set about searching for radical responses to the radical changes occurring aro und them, affirming mankind’s power to shape and influence his environment through experimentation, technology and scientific advancement, while identifying potential obstacles to ‘progress’ in all aspects of existence in order to replace them with updated new alternatives. All the enduring certainties of Enlightenment thinking, and the heretofore unquestioned existence of an all-seeing, all powerful ‘Creator’ figure, were high on the modernists’ list of dogmas that were now to be challenged, or subverted, perhaps rejected altogether, or, at the very least, reflected upon from a fresh new ‘modernist’ perspective. Not that modernism categorically defied religion or eschewed all the beliefs and ideas associated with the Enlightenment; it would be more accurate to view modernism as a tendency to question, and strive for alternatives to, the convictions of the preceding age. The past was now to be seen and treated as different from th e modern era, and its axioms and undisputed authorities held up for revision and enquiry. MODERNISM The first half of the nineteenth century saw an aesthetic turning away from the realities of political and social fragmentation, and so facilitated a trend towards Romanticism: emphasis on individual subjective experience, the sublime, the supremacy of Nature as a subject for art, revolutionary or radical extensions of expression, and individual liberty. By mid-century, however, a synthesis of these ideas with stable governing forms had emerged, partly in reaction to the failed Romantic and democratic Revolutions of 1848. Exemplified by ‘practical’ philosophical ideas such as positivism, and called by various names – in Great Britain it is designated the ‘Victorian era’ – this stabilizing synthesis was rooted in the idea that reality dominates over subjective impressions. Central to this synthesis were common assumptions and institutional frames of reference, including the religious norms found in Christianity, scientific norms found in classical physics and doctrines that asserted that the depiction of external reality from an objective standpoint was not only possible but desirable. Cultural critics and historians label this set of doctrines Realism, though this term is not universal. In philosophy, the rationalist, materialist and positivist movements established a primacy of reason and system. Modernism as a literary movement reached its height in Europe between 1900 and the mid1920s.‘Modernist’ literature addressed aesthetic problems similar to those examined in non-literary forms of contemporaneous Modernist art, such as painting. The general thematic concerns of Modernist literature are well-summarized by the sociologist Georg Simmel: â€Å"The deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the individual to preserve the autonomy and individuality of his existence in the face of overwhelming social forces, of historical heritage, of external culture, and of the technique of life†. The Modernist emphasis on radical individualism can be seen in the many literary manifestos issued by various groups within the movement. The Explosion of Modernism: 1910-1930 On the eve of World War I, a growing tension and , unease with the social order, manifested itself in artistic works in every medium which radically simplified or rejected previous practice. These developments began to give a new meaning to what was termed Modernism‘: it embraced disruption, rejecting or moving beyond simple Realism in literature and art. The Great War of 1914-18 marks a fundamental break between the old world and the new. The experience of the war shattered people’s faith in society and its institutions. People were horrified by the effects of war and mechanized society in general. They were interested in recovering the unique experience of the individual by exploring his/her inner world. The Victorian moral universe collapsed and was replaced by a climate of moral ambiguity, by a sense of emptiness and lack of values. The Modernist novel broke with most of the conventions which had characterized Victorian fiction. First of all the omniscient narrator as moral guide was replaced by the direct or indirect presentation of characters’ thoughts and feelings. Secondly many novels no longer followed a linear plot or a chronological sequence of events. The Modernists turned away from the idea of the novel as a mirror of society and from the sense of social responsibility felt by the Victorian novelists. A nove l can be set in one day and the analysis of a single moment can tell us more about a character than a traditional narrative life-story. The development of the Modernist novel was deeply influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), who proposed a theory of human consciousness as multi-layered, involving different levels of experience and memory. The most significant level was the unconscious, accessible through dreams only. Freud argued that much of man’s conscious behaviour was governed by irrational unconscious drives. This represented a challenge to the idea that the world was rationally ordered. Freud suggested that man’s perception of reality was fundamentally subjective, because man organised the information he received from the outside world according to his interior experience, desires and impulses. Man’s childhood experience therefore had a great influence on his behaviour as an adult because the memory of it was preserved in his unconscious and continued to influence his adult self. Another thinker who influenced the techniques of Modernism was Henri Bergson (1859-1941), who argued that time could not be measured according to units (such as hours, minutes, etc.) because it is a flow, a duration and not a series of points. We do not experience the world moment by moment but in a continuous way. Instead of perceiving time as linear, we experience a mixture of past, present and future in the same moment. His theories contributed to Modernist fiction challenge to the traditional idea of linear narrative. Linked to Bergson’s notion of time is the psychologist William James’s (1842- 1910) notion of â€Å"stream of consciousness† discussed in The Principles of Psychology (1890). Consciousness, James said, â€Å"does not appear to itself chopped up in bits† but is something that â€Å"flows†. Modernist literature attempted to move from the bonds of Realist literature and to introduce concepts such as disjointed time lines. Modernist literature can be viewed largely in terms of its formal, stylistic and semantic movement away from Romanticism. It often features a marked pessimism, a clear rejection of the optimism apparent in Victorian literature in favour of portraying alienated or dysfunctional individuals within a predominantly urban and fragmented society. Modernist literature, moreover, often moves beyond the limitations of the Realist novel with a concern for larger factors such as social or historical change, and this is particularly prominent in ‘stream of consciousness’ writing or technique. Examples can be seen in the work of among others, earnest Hemingway (1899.1961). Modernism describes a series of reforming cultural movements in art and architecture, , music, literature as well Embracing change in the present, it includes the works of thinkers who rebelled against nineteenth century academic traditions. Modernism in Literature is not a chronological designation; rather it consists of literary work possessing certain loosely defined characteristics. This set modernists apart from 19th century artists, who had tended to believe in progress. Modernism, while it was still progressive increasingly saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and therefore the artist was recast as a revolutionary, overthrowing rather than enlightening. Modernist literature is marked by a break with the sequential, developmental, cause-and-effect presentation of the reality of realist fiction, toward a presentation of experience as layered and discontinuous. To achieve this writers use devices such as fragmentation and juxtaposition, motif, symbol, allusion. The Man Who Would Be King Analysis EssayRealism as a literary technique Broadly defined as the faithful representation of reality or verisimilitude, realism is a literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. Although strictly speaking, realism is a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of middle-class life. A reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, Where romanticists transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or superficial to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists center their attention to a remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable consequence (A Handbook to Literature  428). Many critics have suggested that there is no clear distinction between realism and its related late nineteenth- century movement,  naturalism. As Donald Pfizer notes in his introduction to  The Cambridge Companion to American Realism and Naturalism: Howells to London, the term realism is difficult to define, in part because it is used differently in European contexts than in American literature. Pfizer suggests that whatever was being produced in fiction during the 1870s and 1880s that was new, interesting, and roughly similar in a number of ways can be designated as realism, and that an equally new, interesting, and roughly similar body of writing produced at the turn of the century can be designated as  naturalism (5). Put rather too simplistically, one rough distinction made by critics is that realism espousing a deterministic philosophy and focusing on the lower classes is considered  naturalism. In American literature, the term realism encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century during which William Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis, Henry James , Mark Twain, and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an exploration of American lives in various contexts. As the United States grew rapidly after the Civil War, the increasing rates of democracy and literacy, the rapid growth in industrialism and urbanization, an expanding population base due to immigration, and a relative rise in middle-class affluence provided a fertile literary environment for readers interested in understanding these rapid shifts in culture. In drawing attention to this connection, Amy Kaplan has called realism a strategy for imagining and managing the threats of social change (Social Construction of American Realism  ix). Realism was a movement that encompassed the entire country, or at least the Midwest and South, although many of the writers and critics associated with realism (notably W. D. Howells) were based in New England. Characteristics  of Realism * Renders reality closely and in a comprehensive detail. Selective presentation of reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the expense of a well-made plot. * Character is more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices are often the subject. * Characters appear in their real complexity of temperament and motive; they are in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class, to their own past. * Class is important; the novel has traditionally served the interests and aspirations of an insurgent middle class. * Events will usually be plausible. Realistic novels avoid the sensational, dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances. * Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic; tone may be comic, satiric, or matter-of-fact. * Objectivity in presentation becomes increasingly important: overt authorial comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses. Interior or psychological realism a variant form. Other Views of Realism  : * The basic axiom of the realistic view of morality was that there could be no moralizing in the novel The morality of the realists, then, was built upon what appears a paradoxmorality with an abhorrence of moralizing. Their ethical beliefs called, first of all, for a rejection of scheme of moral behavior imposed, from without, upon the characters of fiction and their actions. Yet Howells always claimed for his works a deep moral purpose. What was it? It was based upon three propositions: that life, social life as lived in the world Howells knew, was valuable, and was permeated with morality; that its continued health depended upon the use of human reason to overcome the anarchic selfishness of human passions; that an objective portrayal of human life, by art, will illustrate the superior value of social, civilized man, of human reason over animal passion and primitive ignorance (157). Everett Carter,  Howells and the Age of Realism  (Philadelphia and New York: Lippincott, 1954) . * Realism sets itself at work to consider characters and events which are apparently the most ordinary and uninteresting, in order to extract from these their full value and true meaning. It would apprehend in all particulars the connection between the familiar and the extraordinary, and the seen and unseen of human nature. Beneath the deceptive cloak of outwardly uneventful days, it detects and endeavors to trace the outlines of the spirits that are hidden there; the measure the changes in their growth, to watch the symptoms of moral decay or regeneration, to fathom their histories of passionate or intellectual problems. In short, realism reveals. Where we thought nothing worth of notice, it shows everything to be rife with significance. George Parsons Lathrop, The Novel and its Future,  Atlantic Monthly  34 (September 1874):313 24. * â€Å"Realism is nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.† William Dean Howells,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Editor’s Study,†Ã‚  Harpers New Monthly Magazine  (November 1889), p. 966. * Realism is The art of depicting nature as it is seen by toads. The charm suffusing a landscape painted by a mole, or a story written by a measuring-worm. Ambrose Bierce  The Devils Dictionary  (1911).

The Number One Article on Writing a Good Research Paper

The Number One Article on Writing a Good Research Paper Second, it must be interesting to the reader. It's possible to let them understand what your topic is, why it's important, and the way you intend to proceed with your discussion. It is very important to begin researching the topic after possible. Also, you have to clarify and illustrate the subject of the research in a really fine way in your introduction. An argument can be made more powerful in the event the student is acutely conscious of the argument that the writer is hoping to make. A great research paper introduction should inform the reader about all of the details of the problem under consideration. Following that, speak with the professor about a few of your general suggestions and the potential research directions you're considering pursuing. Some professors may want to find the proposed thesis statement before you begin your research. The Debate Over Writing a Good Research Paper At times, however, it can be rather difficult to get motivated to sit down and compose a paper that's worthy or even adequate to turn in. You will have the ability to understand each and every step that's taken for writing a research paper punctually. Since you may see, there's not any reason to be panic-stricken about writing a research paper. Any fantastic research paper requires a lot more time than a normal essay or lab report. Although it's a form of research paper, the procedure is not the exact same as writing a. 23 hours ago. Your introduction is a significant road map for the remainder of your paper. You may follow APA along with MLA format for writing your research paper punctually. When the abstract of the introduction is completed within the next portion of your paper you want to decide on a superior excellent introduction. Writing a Good Research Paper at a Glance When you intend to compose a research paper try and discover on the subject which you've chosen. A research methodology is among the most vital things that have to be included in your research paper at any price tag. It generates a lot of information, an outline helps the writer to keep track of the relevant information needed for his research topic. It definitely is meticulous on account of the intensive research that includes it, but should you really examine the huge picture of it, a research paper just needs a couple of essent ial methods for it to be less challenging for people which are struggling. While collecting details, make sure you are making observe of the resource of all of the content which you will use for composing the research paper. Or you'll be able to order an intro from a reasonably priced research papers service to conserve time. Now the actual region of the paper comes where you have to manage the principal problems of the subject of research. Read our article to look at the strategies and refresh your head about the general rules and soon you are going to learn how to compose a research paper of the greatest quality! Explain briefly the significant points you want to cover in your paper and why readers ought to be interested in your topic. At our essay support, essays are always delivered in a brief moment. Know how your essay is going to be evaluated. Proofreading and editing needs to be done before submitting the last paper. Practice with our writing guide and you'll observe how your abilities and grades grow! Writing a Good Research Paper at a Glance Clearly, a fraud essays help service doesn't want you to have an option to reach them after being robbed. Some individuals discover that they will need to compose some sort of introduction as a way to find the writing process started. When you compose your statement make sure you're able to seek out some evidence so as to prove your point. One of the absolute most important factors of any online writing service is the capacity to meet deadlines. You never receive a second opportunity to create a first impression. If you're going to pay to obtain a custom made research paper, then you will need value for money. You will discover that the quality is significantly lower and their response time is quite slow. Correct all errors that you could spot and enhance the total grade of the paper to the best of your ability.

The Right US Research Paper Topics

The Right US Research Paper TopicsWriting a US research paper can be difficult. The first step is to decide what type of topic to write about. Once you know what topic you want to write about, the next step is to figure out how to write it.The first thing to do is decide on the topic. You will need to consider not only the subject but the look, feel, and feel of the paper as well. To do this, you should ask yourself questions like 'What is this going to involve?' 'What kind of person will I attract to this subject?' and 'What kind of atmosphere will I want the reader to feel when reading this paper?'It is very important that you find topics that are similar to what you already know about. You do not want to take the time to write about something that you don't already know a lot about. Keep in mind that if you are writing about a particular topic, you will probably have many other topics that are similar.Another way to find topics that are similar to what you already know is to ask s ome of your fellow college students about their most common questions and challenges. When they give you ideas, use them as examples in your paper.Next, it is important to gather information for your paper. This includes taking notes, reading books, and watching videos. The more you can gather information, the better your paper will be. Also, the more you can incorporate all of the information that you gather into your writing, the better it will be.When it comes to researching US research paper topics, the internet is a great place to start. There are many online websites where you can search for different topics and even talk to others who have written on the same topic. Thereare also forums where you can talk to other writers who have also found ways to write papers quickly. By using the internet, you will learn about different topics that you may have never even thought of.You should also try to research US research paper topics using what you have learned from other people. By going to forums and discussion boards and reading about the topics that you are interested in, you will be able to come up with ideas about how to write your own paper. Once you are done with your research, you can see what types of topics other writers are interested in and you can see where you are better suited for the project than they are.Once you find the topics that you want to write about, you will be able to create your research paper topics. From here, you will know exactly what to do in order to write the best paper possible.

Broken Wing Essays - Infanticide, Norma, Operas, Bates Motel

Broken Wing What is it like to be free? Bobbie Ann Mason, the author of "Shiloh" puts Norma Jean Moffitt through different tests in her life before she can find her freedom. Mason introduces us to a character who yearns to be free from her husband and mother. Throughout Norma Jean's life she has dealt with many difficult and trying times that sometimes may not make sense to her and finally this thirty-four-year-old woman is ready to spread her wings; fly away and see what it is like to be free. Throughout the story, Norma Jean's desire to be free is evident in tasks that she is taking on that she would not normally do, leaving her mother and husband blind to the fact that change is coming. Norma begins taking a bodybuilding class, an English composition class and a course in cooking exotic foods. These changes in Norma's life are evident to the reader that she is trying to rediscover herself and find her sense of identity. Her husband Leroy takes notice late in the story to this situation and does not understand why she is going through all of these classes. In a conversation with Mabel, the mother of Norma, she explains to Leroy that Norma Jean just is not used to having him home. The classes are giving Norma the space she had while Leroy was working, but they are also the tools she needs to distance herself from Leroy and Mabel. Not only does Norma Jean want to in a sense fly away from her clueless husband but an overprotective mother keeps Norma's eyes on the sky. As mentioned earlier Norma is thirty-four. Still her mother, Mabel is watching every move she makes. One day Norma is in her house with the door closed and in comes Mabel catching her daughter smoking a cigarette. Norma is found later crying to Leroy how her privacy was invaded by her mother. Norma and Leroy lost a baby when they were eighteen years old due to SIDS. When Mabel hears of a story of neglect, she confronts her daughter and accuses her for the death of their child because she smokes. This violation of privacy and space brings Norma down but does lift her up and she realizes that something needs to happen soon. The character and strength of Norma are challenged by Leroy and Mabel throughout the story. Norma has to adjust her lifestyle to accommodate Leroy whom she is not used to living with. She does not want the same things in life as he does. He would rather a quiet rural area with a log cabin and she wants to be with the crowd and wants nothing to do with Leroy's cabin. When it is mentioned that the two go to Shiloh, it is suggested that Mabel accompany them. Mabel says how she would not want to invade a honeymoon and Norma angrily asks "Who is going on a honeymoon, for Christ's sake" (980). Mabel immediately comes down on her daughter saying that she did not raise her to speak with that tone of voice and Norma's reply is that she has not seen anything yet. This scene is the foreshadowing of the climax. Norma is right, they have not seen anything yet, nor have they seen anything ever. They have been blind to her happiness all along. Norma Jean is given some massive dilemmas to act upon. Should she stay married to her husband and his pipe dreams? Can she stand to have her life examined and questioned by her mother? It is at the end of the story that a decision to leave is finally made. Leroy and Norma go on a little trip to Shiloh, a Civil War battlefield. After the two have a picnic they get into an argument "She won't leave me alone, you won't leave me alone, I feel eighteen again" (982). Norma tried throughout the story to get away from her problems by avoiding her mother and husband but it just was not enough. She needed to be free from all her worries and the two people that were holding her down. Norma Jean left her husband that day at Shiloh and nothing could stop her. The meaning of freedom may have different meanings from person to person. Being free is often overlooked by many people today. The major theme in "Shiloh" is conflict with Norma Jean's wanting freedom and a new way of life while her husband Leroy and mother Mabel hold

How to Write an Essay in Which You Describe the Attitude of the Writer Toward His Boss

How to Write an Essay in Which You Describe the Attitude of the Writer Toward His BossHow to write an essay in which you describe the attitude of the writer toward his boss? While most students spend their first few years learning about personal development and life skills, their primary focus is usually on writing papers. Writing essays in which you describe the attitude of the writer toward his boss is a skill that is developed by students, rather than learned.In general, what students think is that they have to be really nice or really mean when writing an essay. This, of course, is an unwarranted and, quite frankly, ridiculous assumption. If the student tries to match their writing to what they imagine the person on the other side of the paper to be thinking, they are wasting their time and their classmates' time.First of all, when a student writes about their lack of a 'poor attitude,' it is important to see whether the statement holds true for them, or whether it is the case th at they do not really have a poor attitude. If the answer is yes, then they are a good writer and can certainly write an essay in which they describe the attitude of the writer toward his boss in a positive way.Second, when a student writes about their poor attitude toward their boss, the writer often finds that they have quite a bit to say about their boss's behavior, but they don't know how to start the essay. One of the benefits of writing a short essay such as this one is that the writer does not have to wait until the end of the class period to come up with a topic. By writing it during the period when students do not have assignments due, the writer can get the topic out there much sooner. If the topic is written early, it can be analyzed much more easily than a piece written later in the semester.Third, the essay, when written well, is much easier to read. If the writer focuses their writing on the attitudes of the writer toward his boss, rather than on the actions of the bos s toward the writer, then there is less room for misinterpretation, and therefore less room for error. The student is able to capture their own feelings much more clearly when they write about their attitude toward their boss than when they write about their attitude toward their boss's actions toward them.Fourth, the essay can make the student more comfortable with their teacher. When the student writes about their attitude toward their boss in a positive way, they often report that their feelings about their teacher are very similar.Finally, the student can use the essay to express their opinions about their teacher and the topic in general, without being constrained by the person's own view of what is appropriate. As a result, they are often able to put their ideas and feelings on paper in a way that allows them to express them, as freely as possible, to a large audience. This allows the student to give a much deeper insight into their own thoughts and feelings, and therefore it allows them to give better advice and have a better impact on their classmates.Writing an essay in which you describe the attitude of the writer toward his boss is a skill that is developed by students, rather than learned. By writing the essay during the period when no assignments are due, the student is able to think more clearly and write better essays, as well as making a more impactful first impression to their classmates. If they can find a good topic, they can do this repeatedly as they go through their first year of college.

Using Cheap Term Papers For Sale

Using Cheap Term Papers For SaleIf you are a teacher, writer, or an office worker, you can benefit from cheap term papers for sale. If you need academic papers to prepare for your coursework or job interviews, these may be just what you need.Cheap term papers for sale come in many different styles. There are those that are designed for academic work. You can choose these paper types if you are having difficulty with academics or if you are looking for some work for family or friends.The paper must be an official document from your college or university. It must also meet certain standards, such as being a professional one and be free of any grammatical or spelling errors. For this reason, they can be used to present your submission for credit by your school or your employer.Paper types include hand-written, typewritten, computer generated, and electronic. Hand-written papers are convenient, but they may not be as reliable as those you find online. Typewritten papers are easy to learn , but they may be difficult to maintain. Electronic papers are the cheapest, but they often require online submission.In addition to these paper types, there are also printer paper, computer paper, and text documents. Each has advantages and disadvantages. You may not want to consider these paper types, but if you have too much of one type of paper in your class, you may still need to use another paper. For example, if you are giving a long paper to each class, you will still need to print it out for each class.When you choose cheap term papers for sale, it is best to know what you will use the paper for before you buy it. These papers are often sold for graduation papers, for jobs, for your family, or for presentations.Cheap term papers for sale should not be dismissed out of hand. It can be useful when you are searching for a way to present your paper for credit or for your job interview.