Principles of Banking and Finance Essay

What does Sub-Prime Crisis means? Sub Prime lending which is also known as near-prime, non-prime and second chance lending, means lending to people who might have trouble repaying the loan due to income ability or credit ratings which previously would not have been available to them. Credit ratings that might be not favorable to them with the standards set up initially by Financial Institutions slowly dwindle to less strict under-writing of loans. which could also due to an influx of foreign capital making lending easier to these group of people, the investment banks that sold the repackage mortgages to the consumers which is one of the way to fund for capital, and the Housing Urban Development of America policy to ensure that its citizens has access to mortgage loans easily. The cheaper interest rate packaged by the Financial Institutions which seems more affordable for the consumer for the first 1 to 5 years and the thereafter interest rate would have jumped significantly. The loan s here generally referred to mortgage loans. The Crisis started or snowball into what it was in 2007 in my opinion was due to greed. Greed into thinking that the property boom would continue in perpetuity so that the borrowers could cash out more from their current property market valuation, with this cash out in terms of personal loan they could fund or finance their lifestyle be it buying a new property for investment purposes, to flip or for rental. For the luxury in life they choose to enjoy now, spending future money. As the economy slowed, jobs are being taken away from corporation in America to other countries which have a cheaper source of overhead expenses and manpower. People are being retrenched thus causing them to start defaulting on their loan repayments. A statistic done has shown that the American households do not have any savings but was laden with debt instead. The housing bubble burst, the market does not have that much capital as it used to have to continue to push property prices up anymore, thus causing the market to slow overall, foreclosures of their properties was happening. Consumers was also unable to obtain a refinancing which they had planned previously to lower their interest rate again when it went up, as financial institutions feel the pinched and controlled its lending. How did the Financial Institutions played a part in this? In the past banks have financed their mortgage lending activities through the deposits they receive from their customers. This has confined the amount of mortgage lending they could do. In recent years, banks have designed a new model where they repackage these mortgages to be sold to the bond markets. This has made it a lot easier to fund additional borrowing from the investors and interest rate was low. But it has also led to abuses as banks no longer have the incentive to check carefully the mortgages they issue to the lenders. The failure to check and curb lending in return for the possibility of profit was one of the causes. The first sign of the sub-prime crisis was as early as 2007 when HSBC Finance which is part of the banks north American subsidiary has to write off 880 million in sub-prime lending. The business has become unsustainable as borrowers started to default. The new model which we have come to know is known either as Mortgaged backed Assets or Collateral Debts Obl igations. The repackage mortgages are being sold to the bond markets, before they can be sold, credit rating agency will determine and give the model a rating. A credit rating for an issuer takes into consideration the issuer’s credit worthiness example its ability to pay back a loan, and affects the interest rate applied to the particular security being issued. These MBS or CDOs as it has come to know are usually marketed to countries which has a surplus in its balance sheet as it was generally known that Asians believe in savings rather than spending future money thus the products were usually marketed in Asia, It is allege that the rating agencies experienced from conflicts of interest, as they were paid by investment banks and other firms that organize and sell these structured securities to investors. If there are not to give favorable ratings to these products they risk the underwriter of these securities to another rating agency. It would be hard to sell these products if they are not being given a rating to begin with. Once they are sold the banks have in a way diverted part of the risk to the consumers. Investors should not rely too heavily on these ratings agencies opinions but instead carry out their own homework in the safeness of debt level as well as others related securities. Probably the opinions of the agencies enable them to get a conclusion, however based on past decade of event, it can only be consider as off base when it comes to the risk of credit event. Investors should try to put themselves in the shoes of the product pushers, asking themselves very important points like, why do you need to sell these products? Do you own any of these products yourself? If it is as good as you mention have the private investors bought and participated a substantial amount of their savings in it? Perhaps there need to be some form of intermediaries whereby no conflict of interest will affect their opinion and report of these products. A case study in Singapore itself which has made headlines during this crisis was the minibond saga which was being sold in Singapore by a couple of Financial Institutions. The originator of this series of structured products was the now defunct Lehman Brothers. The Minibond was being illustrated to the local consumer as a bond which is not the case it is actually a Collateral Debts Obligations. The relationship managers in banks are eager to sell the product because of the high commission and the consumer who are eager to buy because the returns are much higher than the fixed deposit being offered by the banks. An estimated of 500 million Singapore dollars was purchased for the Minibonds by consumers. It stirred a series of conflicts with the Financial Institutions that sold these products, the consumers cried fouled into being mis-sold of it, some of the consumers managed to get back part of their investment and vowed not to touch these structured products ever again. We can take a look back into the 1990s where one of the policy set up and enforce by the Housing and Urban Development of America, was one of the cause of the sub prime crisis. With the support of the government, HUD has less mortgage restriction requirements on its borrowers. The mandate was that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac which was regulated by HUD, was to generate up to 8 million more homeowners in America. It was known as the â€Å"National Homeownership Strategy†. No down payment was required, 100% financing for the property was the norm. This was partly possible due to the influx of cheap money in the market, wit h this cheap money consumers speculated with the market, they kept buying new homes thus the good years of where the appreciation of the property keep going up. Financial Institutions dare to lend due to the market confidence that it can only keep going up, borrowers confidence that the market too can only keep going up. A check with HUD official website, apparently the US government is still supporting home ownership program without first addressing a stable income issue. Only with a stable income can a person make regular commitment to his or her housing loan commitment. Kudos to the Singapore government for taking appropriate actions during the last few years when their economy was recovering, the measures taken to prevent over speculation of the property market in Singapore. Homebuyers with the extra cash were snapping up properties, either for owner’s occupation or for investment purposes. The government either learned from the Sub-prime crisis or foreseen that if it continues the way it is going, a market crash might be imminent or the crash will be too fast and hard, no soft landing for the consumers. As they knew that property market have its up and down. Steps was taken, it used to be 90/10. Whereby the buyer have to come up with 10% cash and the remaining 90% can be financed through a financial institutions regardless of the number of property they currently owned. It was changed to 80/20 rule, 20% of which is the owner’s own cash an 80% through financing. Surprisingly it did not deter the consumers, the market still kept soaring. The next rule implemented was the 80/20 rule for first time buyers, meaning buyers without any current mortgage loan, for buyers with an existing mortgage which was not yet paid up; they are only eligible for 60/40. 60% financing for their new property and an increased in the stamp duty to be paid for to the government if it was their 3rd property for Singaporean. The hardest hit was the foreigners who are seeking to invest their money in Singapore properties as they have to pay additional 10% stamp duty which is likely to deter most of them. P rices still kept going up, the latest ruling was much more complex than the previous few. If one is looking at 80% financing one can only borrow up to the age of 65 years old and tenure of not more than 30 years. Which was not the case previously, in previous scenario it was dependent on different Banks guideline in Singapore, they could lend up to the age of 70, 75 or 80. They stepped in and put a cap at 65 as they believe that is the retirement age. If you want to extend your loan tenure your financing amount will drop to either 60% or 40%. I believe the government did this as they knew that the US is going ahead with Quantitative Easing 3, they want to prevent too much hot money from landing in Singapore shore. To sum up, we learned from our mistakes and grow not to make the same mistake twice. A healthy economy is based on real economic goods with value. Hopefully US can still continue to create innovative products like Apple and keep their manufacturing production in US soil, get employment rate up. The citizens have to maintain their expectations in terms of salary wise and spend within their means. Tighten up their way of lending and controlling Banks to a certain extent, a culture that is profit driven but with ethnics. Can heed the investment guru jim roger’s advice to focus on farming as there will be a food shortage in time to come. Induce good saving habits in everyone to save up for a rainy day. http://www.ethicalquote.com/docs/SubprimeMortgageCrisis.pdf http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7073131.stm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_policies_and_the_subprime_mortgage_crisis http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/06/09/AR2008060902626.html http://www.thetruthaboutmortgage.com/mortgages-with-no-money-down/ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/markets/2816291/HSBC-hit-by-sub-prime-crisis.html

Disadvantage of Bilingualism Essay

I have to admit that bilingualism has several advantages. Nonetheless, tackling this issue, the lingual conditions in which children are raised to be able to speak two languages equally well should be also taken into consideration. Many linguists underline that while introducing the second language to learner, his/her exposure to a given linguistic system is crucial. Thusly, parents striving for teaching their children a secod language/a non-native language often rely on commercial language materials such as books, videos, television programs, etc. Nevertheless, researchers (Kendall King and Lyn Fogle, Georgetown University) have found that live, human interaction such as reading or talking to a child is more effective than presentation of recored sounds (e.g., in television) and, therefore, the best method for fostering both first and second language development. What is more, Other studies have found that, for older children, being read aloud to in the second language increases second language vocabulary much more than watching television in that language (patterson, 2002). I would like to concentrate now on this parent-child communication and its effect on language abilities of minors. There is some evidence that infants can hear even in the womb. After their birth, as they are growing, they try to imitate the ‘noises’ they hear. According to Deborah D.K. Ruuskanen, Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vaasa in Finland, and mother of three bilingual children, it is significant to expose babies to native-speaker sounds, in order to facilitate them acquisition, and eventually execution, of native-speaker/that sounds. Generally, there is no problem when children are raised bilingual in families where the parents are completely bilingual themselves, that is to say, they use two native languages (each parent speaks separate mother-tongue) or they speak the non-native language exceptionally well. In other cases/Otherwise, introducing a second language to children since their infancy is not advisable. It is not only because babies might learn parents’ mispronunciation or faulty accent, but also because it might confuse them unnecessarily. The parents who are not comfortable or fluent in second language should be dissuaded from doing that so as not to affect harmfully their children’s linguistic abilities.

Analysis of Tetrahydrocannabinol

THC is a substance that has been around in civilizations around the world for many, many years. The discovery of THC occurred after discovering that morphine attached to receptors in the brain which caused an individual to feel high, chemists in the 40’s and 50’s found that there were specific receptors for THC in the brain and how there is a natural chemical in our body that is similar to THC. It wasn’t until 1963 that two scientists named Mechoulam and Yehiel Gaoni isolated, and first synthesized THC. In the world’s history, THC has had a long journey. The first discoveries of it being used were in hemp ropes, and burial clothes made by the Chinese in 10,000 BC. In the middle Ages, Cannabis was grown abundantly throughout Cairo and was never successfully banned due to its use being reinforced by the Koran. When France invaded Napoleon attempted to further the ban on the drug, but people started to spread the word of the wonderful effects it can bring. In the 1900’s the drug was outlawed because a man named Harry J. Anslinger had a personal problem with the drug and in 1937 it was finally banned for good by the Federal Bureau of Narcotics. (The Role of Chemistry in History, History of THC) THC (Merck index number of 9283) is naturally found in a liquid state which is commonly unknown because when it is in the crystal on the plant that is because it is mixed in with other cannabinoids and varieties of terpenes. (Chemical Ecology of Cannabis, David W. Pate) Due to the IUPAC name of THC, tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6-dibenzo[?,d]pyran-1-ol, and the structural formula of THC. I believe that THC is actually in the alcohol family of Organic chemistry with the Molecular formula of C21H30O2. The lethal dosage of THC has only been tested in labs with rats, but it can be calculated to reveal how much THC would need to be smoked to be considered a lethal dosage to human beings. The LD50 in male rats is 1270 mg/kg, and 730 mg/kg in female rats when taken orally in sesame oil, and 42 mg/kg among both genders when inhaled. Cannabis Chemistry, Erowid) These statistics, when applied to humans, means that for a human being to overdose on THC, they would have to smoke 15,000 lbs of marijuana in under 14 minutes. Due to the low level of risk from THC, it is used mainly in the world of medicine to help with many types of problems that can commonly be brought by Cancer, and AIDS. One medical issue that THC is used to help with is arthritis, which has mainly become popular in Britain. The larger area of medicine that THC is actually prescribed for is Complications that come with chemotherapy and AIDS Wasting Syndrome. In both cases, it is used to reduce pain, and damper the suffering in an individual. But, it is also used to counteract the appetite loss, and nausea that comes with chemotherapy. AIDS Wasting Syndrome is where an AIDS patient begins to give up hope, and loses their appetite. Which is where, once again, THC comes into play reconnecting that relationship with food. There are many other uses for medical marijuana such as Glaucoma, Multiple Sclerosis, Depression, Movement Disorders, Parkinson’s disease, dystonia, chronic pain, diabetes, Addiction, asthma, brain injury/stroke, crohn’s disease, ulcerative depression, mental illness, epilepsy, fibromyalgia, high blood pressure/hypertension, migraine, Nail Patella Syndrome, Schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Tourette’s syndrome, but not enough research have been done on these topics to be able to argue the beneficial use of THC as a cure. Some common reactions that a human can have to THC in marijuana from either smoking too much, or being allergic can include depression, anxiety, fatigue, short-term memory loss, dizziness, nausea, tempered coordination, palpitations are experienced as generalized discomfort, and ill-being. Also, acute anxiety or panic attacks from a feeling of loss of self, or loosing of one’s mind. (Acute Effects of Marijuana, NCMDA) Many studies were done that tried to look at the link between juvenile crimes, and the users of marijuana. A few societal issues that were found to be most commonly linked include Truancy, low self-esteem, delinquent behavior (Stealing, vandalism, fare dodging), having delinquent friends, hanging out on streets in boredom, and other behavioral/mental health issues(those in special education programs/schools tend to use more) (The global youth network, Drug trends) Some short term psychological effects of THC can include distorted sense of time, paranoia, magical or â€Å"random† thinking, short-term memory loss, anxiety, and depression. It also blocks certain receptors in your brain that can cause your brain to be unsure whether it can achieve certain tasks or not which can lead to the paranoia, and uncertainty in someone under the influence of THC. (WedMD) When you grow a Cannabis plant, THC seems to be more abundant in that plant when grown in a drier climate. In 1975 two scientists, Latta and Eaton, ran a study that showed when a Cannabis plant is put under more stress in the growing conditions, such as the lack of soil moisture available and competition with neighboring plants, increased the production of delta-9-THC. (Chemical Ecology of Cannabis, David W. Pate) After conducting many hours of research on this topic, I believe that THC is actually a better substance for you than many others out there. It has never caused a single death, and is greatly beneficial to medical treatments of the chronically ill.

Year 1987 as a break point in the development of the chinese Fifth Essay

Year 1987 as a break point in the development of the chinese Fifth Generation filmmakers - Essay Example The decades also saw a rapid growth in the education of the people. A special group of people, studying the art of film making defied the norms for film making, questioning and scrutinizing every single act of their profession. They devised new methods of taking shots, and they were eager to showcase their talents and break the inherent rules of film making. The consequence of which is the birth of fifth generation filmmakers - Zhang Yimou, Tian Zhuangzhuang, Chen Kaige, etc. They revolutionized filmmaking and opened new markets for Chinese films in the West. The critically acclaimed western directors took notice of their talents and the films of these directors such as Yellow Earth, Red Sorghum, etc., won high accolades from the film ‘circle’. To analyze more about the development of fifth generation and its implications on the Chinese film industry, a critical review of the films released during that period can be taken into consideration. Xudong Zhang and Rey Chowâ₠¬â„¢s critical analysis of the films â€Å"King of the Children†, directed by Chen Kaige and â€Å"Red Sorghum† by Yimou Zhang can lead the right pathway to understand why 1987 is considered to be the breakpoint in the development of fifth generation filmmakers. ... It was the third film of Chen Kaige, revolving around a simple man, who goes out to a remote place, outside of his city to teach illiterate people. In the process, he finds out the troubles and suffering of the people with the lack of proper materials to educate themselves and the consequences of the socio economic changes. Chen tries to portray the lack of food, poverty, unemployment and lack of education prevalent in China during this period. In a period where martial arts and urban culture reigned supreme, Chen’s work proved to be an unthinkable one, defying the rules laid out by the censor boards of that time. Irrespective of all its critical appreciations, the film somehow failed to achieve commercial success both in international as well as domestic level. Xudong Zhang’s views According to Zhang, â€Å"King of the Children† released in 1987 needs to be appreciated for two major reasons – its aesthetic nature of film making and its bold way of storyte lling breaking all the norms of the social culture present in that era. Despite this and â€Å"Red Sorghum† being the only films with a more rural background of all the movies from the fifth generation film makers, they actually epitomized the significance of these people. What really impresses Zhang about the film is the ability and skill of the director to bring out his own personal experience combined with the social plundering happening across the country in a melancholic and subtle way, pushing the cinematic modernism to its peak. The thing that befuddles the author is the failure of the film which is considered to be the â€Å"ultimate emblem of China’s Fifth Generation Film† (Zhang 1997). Although the film maker considers it to be an expected occurrence from

The 49ers and the california ethos Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The 49ers and the california ethos - Essay Example On many occasions, the gold mines and the mining camps took toll on people as it presented the issue of time and circumstances of returning to families and communities to be a different perspective away from the original quest for fortune. It brought forth a different view in terms of an individual, family and community at home as compared to the 49ers of the gold camps. To the married people, family, friends and community formed the basis that it difficult for them to go back home. To others, there were issues that included a commitment, responsibility, the chain of burdens and many other issues related to family. In the course of staying in California, some 49ers managed to keep the promise of returning after some period or sought for an extension of the original time specific. Despite these, majority of members deemed such agreements as being passed to the reality of California and the gold fields. The pleasantries of California and the hope to find something to return home on most occasions made it difficult for the 49ers to go home to their families. Many of the 49ers who thought that they would go to California and be back within a year found it had to keep that promise. This was influenced by the consideration of how one would return home. It was discouraging for 49ers to learn that they could only go back home little than they had come with or sometimes with nothing at all. The quest to find something much better to go home with made them stay even longer in California (Malcolm, 1997). With increased publications of free gold, people around the world continued flocking California, demand for almost everything kept increasing, and the prices for most commodities kept on skyrocketing. This made life more difficult rendering the 49ers with the inability to save for their return. As such it became a difficult question

Finality and Justice in Recognition and Enforcement of International Thesis

Finality and Justice in Recognition and Enforcement of International Arbitral Award in China and Vietnam - Thesis Example lity of foreign arbitration award on Vietnam in particular, where the writer is of the view that only those foreign awards are acceptable in Vietnam, which maintain the condition of reciprocity in their nature and scope. Hence, if Vietnam has already developed and signed reciprocal recognition of the arbitration award with some country, the decisions made by such a country while issuing the award could be enforced in Vietnam. On the other hand, the countries having no legal relationship with Vietnam with regards to entering into the contract of internationally accepting the arbitration would not have any validity in their scope altogether. The same is observed and followed in the light of the New York Convention 1958, where Vietnam had signed as the party to foreign arbitration awards (FAA), along with several other countries and states of the world (1-2). The author, in his study, has mentioned the vital points associated with FAA, to which he maintains â€Å"three pillars of arbitration award†, which include (i) the Ordinance on recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitration awards, September 14 1995 (the Ordinance); (ii) the Civil Procedure Code, June 15 2004; and (iii) the Law on Enforcement of Civil Judgment, November 14 2008. One of the most distinguished features of the FAA includes that the issuance of the arbitration awards within the Vietnamese jurisdiction would be made by some arbitrator other than a Vietnamese, while the same being observed outside of Vietnam would be observed by some impartial arbitrator, on which the parties to the contract have already agreed. However, the agreement of the parties serves as an essential matter, which is witnessed by each and every corporate firm and forum at local, regional and international scales. Consequently, it endorses the validity of the award and all the provisions a ssociated with it as well (2). The author has further described the procedural rule attributed to the international arbitration awards,

Socrates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Socrates - Essay Example As Cornelia de Vogel said, â€Å"The ‘real’ Socrates we have not: what we have is a set of interpretations each of which represents a ‘theoretically possible’ Socrates.† (de Vogel 1955). According to what is reported by Plato, Socrates was born to Sophroniscus, who is purported to be a stonemason and Phaenarete, who turned towards the profession of a midwife later on in her life. After the death of Sophroniscus, when Socrates was around 18 years old, Socrates’ mother remarried Chaeredemus who was the father of Patrocles, Socrates’ half-brother. Socrates was born at a time when literacy had become widespread among the males, with elementary schools teaching boys not only to read and write, but also gymnastics and music. So it is assumed that he also received formal education. Socrates was sent for the compulsory two years military training, after which he was on active duty in the army, fighting many a war and battles, as during this time too Athens was moving towards war with Sparta. Socrates fought in Potidaea, Spartolus, Delium, and finally, at Amphipolis, whereby he proved himself to be a brave and heroic soldier. It was during the last battle that he had the dialogue about the etymologies of words. After this battle, the treaty of Nicias between Athens and Sparta took place, which allowed Attica to flourish without any invasions. Socrates married around this time, when he also carried on with his dialogue about erotic love, democracy and mystery religion, a dialogue that would result in the participants being accused of sacrilege much later. Socrates wed Xanthippe, who is purported to be much younger than him and with whom he had three sons, their first born Lamprocles, named after Xanthippe’s father thus implying that Xanthippe’s father if not her family were more illustrious than Socrates’, Sophroniscus, named after Socrates’ father, and their youngest son was Menexenus. What Socrates

Course Content and Modes of Teaching Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Course Content and Modes of Teaching - Assignment Example This study stresses that the fact that the course is undertaken by both local and international students, we are dealing with issues that require cultural diversity to be appreciated so as to interact with other members of the class. The process of interacting with a wide range of cultures in the class has enabled me to develop interest in communication, thus leading to success in this class. In addition, the communication class helps in improving the author's English skills in both written and oral language, which is an essential aspect in the real-life workplace and thus. This research discusses that in presenting the course material, the teacher uses different methods, including lecturing, where the teacher is the sole disseminator of information. In this method, interaction with the students is mainly limited by the lecturer when presenting the instructions. The demonstration method is mainly used in the health class and involves the students observing the process of carrying out a procedure. The health class is complemented with practical exercise where the students participate actively in the process. In addition, the communication class uses the brainstorming method where the instructor gives instructions and the students form groups where they discuss opposing ideas.  Each one of the courses is aimed at a unique purpose. On one hand, the health course is aimed at honing the students’ skills in relation to basic health terminologies while preparing them for future professional practice in health-related areas.  

Types of Business Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Types of Business Organisations - Essay Example Sole Proprietorship: Sole proprietorship is the simplest type of business organisation. A sole proprietor is the sole owner of all of the assets of the business and is solely liable for all the debts and obligations of the business. Unlike a corporation, the business of the sole proprietor is not considered a separate entity. Rather, it is considered an extension of the individual. The sole proprietor is personally responsible for all legal debts and obligations of the business and is entitled to all the profits of the business. Angela Schneeman (2002). John Smith is a middle-aged man who has been running his own plumbing business successfully for the last 15 years and has built a good reputation within his community. His plumbing business has improved with each year and is doing very well. John’s plumbing skills and the work he has done over the years in his neighborhood has earned him a very good reputation and helped him to build a solid client base. John is very happy with his business and plans to hand over the business to Adam, his son, as he wants him to take over this sole proprietorship business when he decides to retire. According to Angela Schneeman (2002) the sole proprietor may delegate decisions and management of the business to agents, but all authority to make decisions must come directly from the sole proprietor, who is responsible for all the business related acts of employees.... must come directly from the sole proprietor, who is responsible for all the business related acts of employees. Sole Proprietorship Advantages: Running a sole proprietorship plumbing business for the last 15 years has provided John many advantages such as being able to choose his working hours, be his own boss, not have to answer to anyone but himself and finally enjoy all the benefits and profits earned out of the plumbing business. Working within his neighborhood also gave him the opportunity to know the residents in person and also establish new friendships and build himself a good reputation, since all of the plumbing work was done by John himself. Sole Proprietorship Disadvantages: On the other hand as John started to get older he began to notice, that working as a sole trader in his business made him shoulder the entire workload by himself, and when he needed help there was no one around, and all accounts and tax related matters had to once again be prepared in detail by him. The other big concern of John was the problem of business continuity, because he was nearing the age of retiring and wanted his son Adam to take over the business but Adam showed no interest when it came to plumbing and instead wanted to become a lawyer. John was concerned as to what will happen to his business. "Plumbco Ltd" a growing private limited company was interested in setting up its operations in the neighborhood that John Smith lived in, and they heard about his reputation in the neighborhood as a plumber and of the number of years that he had served the community. With this in mind, they approached John and gave him a proposal in which they wanted to buy out his

The Awakening by Kate Chopin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Awakening by Kate Chopin - Essay Example Rather she thinks that she is also a valuable part of the society who needs to fulfill her instinct desires instead of staying at home and taking care of children and husband. It does not mean that she does not love her sons rather the fact is that she loves them but do not want to spare her whole life just for them. Edna has same feelings for her husband. She respects him as a wife should do but the element of love does not seem to be there in her relationship. When this novel was published, people did not like the character of Edna and criticized Chopin for writing such an immoral novel in which a woman was shown as a sexual being. In the novel, Edna has been shown playing the role of a woman who does not want to remain static in the society. She wants to participate actively in the society for her own desires and for that, she has to sacrifice her responsibilities up to some extent, which includes her home, her children, and her husband. Edna is shown in the character of a woman w ho does not want to sacrifice her private or social life for her husband and children. In the novel, she seems to be taking care of her children and husband but she has the desire to do something more which should reveal her inner thoughts and feelings. She does not want to be a model wife and mother as her friend, Adele Ratignolle. Adele has been shown in the role of a woman who devotes herself for her family. ... Adele has been shown in a good character in the novel. When Edna falls in relationship with Lebrun, Adele becomes worried while thinking of the future of Edna’s sons. She thinks that Edna’s care towards her children will be affected because of her new relationship. In the novel, the author has shown that there is no match between the thoughts and feelings of Edna and Adele and this is the reason why Adele does not understand the viewpoint of her friend. The only similarity observed in the novel between the feelings of Edna and Adele was that both friends wanted to take extreme care of their children. The difference was that Edna did not want to sacrifice her personal life for her children. The author has portrayed Edna inn the role of a woman who wants to live her life properly by exhibiting her hidden desires of love and sex. In the novel, Adele does not seem to be agreeing with her friend’s viewpoint. She believes that a woman has nothing to do more if she dedi cates her life fully for here children. She tries to explain it to her friend too but she does not get any success in that. Adele’s belief that a woman cannot do justice with her children if she starts fulfilling her own desires come true when Edna lefts her children to her in-laws when she comes back to New Orleans. In this stage of the novel, Edna starts disregarding her responsibilities towards her children and husband. She often thinks of her affair with Labrun who is no more with her due to some business reasons. It is the time when Edna starts her new affair with Alcee Arobin. Edna has been shown as a woman full of sexual desires at this stage of the novel. She forgets her relationship with her husband and falls into an affair with a new partner. Edna also contacts

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Management - Essay Example These problems are usually referred to as public information resource management or sometimes as knowledge management. According to Henry (2011, p. 155), this is â€Å"the collection, administration, and use of social and organizational data, including the development of policies and procedures for information resources and systems, for the purpose of forming and delivering public policy.† Public managers play a key role in the management of public information resources in that they assure well and operational information systems that provide critical knowledge that is used in developing strategies that ensure organizational success (Henry, 2011, p. 155). The management of resources entails the collection, administration, and the use of social and organizational data. This includes the development of policies and procedures for information resources and systems, for the purpose of forming and delivering public policy (Henry, 2011, p. 155). Henry (2011, p. 157) asserts that the use of information technology has been embraced by public bodies in information management in that it possesses a higher rate of success. This is partly due to the fact that it is more inclusive as it encourages participation of the persons affected by the particular information that is to be managed (Henry, 2011, p. 158). For successful public knowledge management, ... Thirdly, the organizational process should be the focus in the introduction and management of information resources (Henry, 2011, p. 163). Fourthly, Henry (2011, p. 164) asserts that there is need to develop strong skills among information resource managers to foster strong relationship between the managers and the rest of the organization and lastly, public policy decision making should always ensure that there is minimal risk in the management of information. However, Henry (2011, p. 164) argues that public information resource management faces numerous challenges. One challenge is the dilemma of sharing of private information via public information agencies. To cure this challenge, Henry (2011, p. 165) affirms that the government of the United States has enacted several legislations that protect individual citizens in regards the management of information. An example of such legislation is The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 that created the Privacy and Ci vil Liberties Oversight Board which protects a citizen’s financial and other personal records from undue scrutiny by federal authorities or agencies (Henry, 2011, p. 166). Governments and other public agencies also fear what people may use with the information they gather. This is due to the risks associated with information technology such as cybercrime in the form of hacking, harrowing and humiliation (Henry, 2011, p. 167). To counteract this, the government and public agencies insist on certain standards in information management security. The measures include ensuring that there is compliance with standards, policies and the law, ensuring of the effectiveness of information security controls and the overall impact of the

The Romantic Era Essay Example for Free

The Romantic Era Essay The basic notion behind the music belonging to the Romantic Era was its deep and realistic impact on the audience’s heart and mind. Such was the popularity of Romanticism amongst musicians that a certain number of them created their own unique templates. Along with the progressing popularity of the German lieder, newly introduced instrumental styles like overtures and symphonic poems also gained heat (Kirby, 1990). Classical music in this era prospered and rose to such a high notch that it is absolutely essential to state that some of music’s most magnificent works were created during this period. Legendary music composers including Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann, have made priceless contributions to the romantic classical music. For example, Beethoven composed his later works in this period while Schubert composed a vast number of lieder, symphonies, chamber music, and piano solos. Furthermore, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner also attained popularity in the mid 19th century on behalf of their sophisticated compositions. Liszt produced some extraordinary music for piano while Wagner combined the various forms of arts into his mythological musicals (Kirby, 1990). In the late 19th century, composers performed diverse experimentations on their works. For instance, Anton Bruckner had a tinge of both religion and secularism in his symphonies; Johannes Brahms found himself in Classicism; Giuseppe Verdi was responsible for some of the greatest operas of all time; Gustav Mahler composed for a full orchestra; and Richard Strauss made his name in symphonic poems and operas. Moreover, this era was also famous for its nationalistic characteristics. Musicians in the north and east side of Europe took the initiative to include a patriotic element in their compositions. Their basic inspiration for this matter was their local folk songs and dances. The renowned Russian composer, Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky was a significant figure of this category and is attributed for his nationalistic approach (Kirby,1990).

Chromatography Separation of Dye Mixture

Chromatography Separation of Dye Mixture Chromatography is a technique used to separate the components of a mixture 1. There are two phases in chromatography, the stationary phase (absorbed solvent) and the mobile phase (moving solvent). The process of chromatography involves passing a mixture dissolved in a mobile phase through a stationary phase. Since each phase has a different distribution coefficient, the components travel at a different rate and thus get separated. The two commonly used techniques of chromatography are thin layer chromatography, TLC, and column chromatography. Thin layer chromatography is used to determine the purity of a substance, to identify, and is used to determine solvent system for separations of mixtures. This technique is especially useful in determining optimum conditions for separating compounds by column chromatography 1. On the other hand, column chromatography is used on a much larger scale. It is used to separate mixtures made of two or more compounds. During column chromatography, thes e components are separated many times between the stationary phase and the mobile phase. The purpose of conducting this experiment was to determine the suitable solvents for the various components in a mixture of 1:1 methylene blue and fluorescein dye. The two eluting solvents used in the experiment were 1:12:14 mixture of K2SO4: CH3CN and 95% ethanol. The experiment allowed us to identify the effects of the two different solvents on the different dye mixtures. The effect can be observed from the retention factor, Rf, which is a ratio of the distance traveled by the sample to the distance traveled by the solvent 2. Different conclusions can be drawn up from the Rf value, a high Rf value would indicate that the substance is less polar and has traveled a greater distance and a low Rf value would indicate the opposite. The two dye mixtures used in the experiment are methylene blue and fluorescein. Based on the properties of the two substances, the alternate hypothesis that methylene blue will have a higher retention factor compared to fluorescein can be stipulated. It can also be hypothesized that since fluorescein is more polar than methylene blue it will dissolve in the more polar solvent and travel a greater distance. Results The distance traveled by each dye mixture, the R- value, is shown in Table 1 and Table 2. These R-values are used to calculate the Rf values for each mixture, which are also shown in Table 1 and Table 2. The Rf values for the mixtures in 1:12:14 K2SO4:H2O:CH3CN are 0.76, 0.70 and 0.75 for fluorescein, dye mixture and methylene blue respectively. The Rf values for the mixtures in 95% ethanol are 0.057, 0.32 and 0.34 for fluorescein, dye mixture and methylene blue respectively. As indicated in the tables above, both the eluting solvents, 1:12:14 K2SO4:H2O:CH3CN and 95% ethanol separated impurity on the TLC plate. The Rf values are similar with the Rf values found by other experiments. M.B Naff and A.S Naff found the Rf values of fluorescein to be 0.85 and the Rf value of methylene blue to be 0.02, when the eluting solvent used is a ratio of 2:2: 1 methyl ethyl ketone: acetic acid: isopropyl alcohol 1. Table 3 shows the elution of the fluorescein and methylene blue, with methylene blue eluting first followed by fluorescein. Discussion Thin layer chromatography was used to determine the most suitable solvent system for the separations of the mixtures. From the data gathered, it was observed that both fluorescein and methylene blue traveled a further distance on the chromatogram when the solvent 1:12:14 K2SO4: H2O:CH3CN was used, as compared to the distance traveled when the solvent being used was 95% ethanol. This shows that the solvent 1:12:14 K2SO4: H2O:CH3CN is more polar than 95% ethanol since in the solvent 1:12:14 K2SO4: H2O:CH3CN both the polar dye mixtures dissolve (like attracts/ dissolves like) and travel a further distance. The polarity of the elutent forces the compounds to the top of the place, because the compounds dissolve well and do not interact with the stationary phase. In TLC, the adsorbent (stationary phase) is thinly spread onto a flat sheet of supportive plastic. The mixture to be separated is applied onto the stationary phase about 1 cm from the bottom of  the chromatographic sheet. The sheet is then placed into a developing chamber containing the  mobile phase. The mobile phase rises up the chromatography sheet by capillary action. As the  mobile phase proceeds up the sheet, the components of the mixture are retained in various  degrees by the stationary phase. The chemical composition of the stationary phase and the  mobile phase play a significant role in how far the components travel up the chromatographic  sheet. In column chromatography, a glass column is packed with a solid stationary phase. The mixture  to be separated is applied at the top of the column. The mobile phase descends by gravity  through the column. The components of the mixture to be separated have different properties. The rate at which the components descend through the column depends on several factors. The  component is retained by the stationary phase to a certain extent depending on the properties of  the stationary phase and the properties of the component. The solvation power of the solvent also  affects the rate of elution. The rule of like dissolves like applies here. The individual  components, with different affinities for the stationary phase and the mobile phase, are  continuously absorbed onto the stationary phase, solvated by the mobile phase eluting through  the column, reabsorbed onto the stationary phase, etc. The speed at which the components travel through the column is directly related to the number of absorption-elution cycles that occur. Therefore a balance between the solvation power of the mobile phase and the absorption power  of the stationary phase determines how fast each individual component travels through the  column.1,2 Think of a piece of wood floating down a creek. If there is a lot of grass growing in the stream,  the wood will get caught in the grass for awhile, then it will break loose and flow down the creek  a short distance, get caught in some more grass or rocks, break free again, and continue this  process until it has made its way down the creek. Aluminum cans will travel down the creek at  different rates than the wood based on the amount of time they are retained by the grass. If there  is no grass in the creek, the piece of wood and aluminum can will both reach the end of the creek  WRONG!!! From the data gathered it can also be observed that the polar dye mixture, fluorescein ascended quickly when the solvent 1:12:14 K2SO4: H2O:CH3CN was used. This is primarily because the nonpolar compounds stick to the stationary phase, while polar compounds separate and travel upwards with the solvent. From the TLC plates, it is indicated that different compounds in the mixture travel a t different rates; polar compounds travel quickly while lesspolar compounds travel more slowly. The stationary phase was the substrate alumina which is considered to be a polar substance since the surface consists of polar (OH) groups. The moving phase is the solvent system that, moves up the stationary alumina coated plate. All solvent systems will be considered non-polar relative to the silica adsorbent. Potential problems leading to yield loss- In between two sand layers some impurities were trapped and on top of alumina fluroscien dye stayed. The 95% ethanol and mixture of blue dye dripped through columns down the container and collection of this clear mixture ended when solvent was colourless. Then sodium hydroxide was used to wash out the fluorescien dye into a separate beaker which caused the purple impurities to move down the cotton. This might be due to the thin layers of sand used or excessive solvent. However, this can be prevented by lowering the time it may take the dye to come down the column by increasing the air pressure from above (Still et al., 1978). Potential improvements to the process or problems with the experiments However, this can be prevented by lowering the time it may take the dye to come down the column by increasing the air pressure from above 3. The two dyes methylene blue and sodium hydroxide were used to separate fluorescien dye with ethanol in second part, column chromatography. References (1) Naff, M.B., Naff, A.S. 1963. TLC on microscope slides: An organic chemistry experiment. J.Chem. Educ.40 (10). pp 534, 535. (2) Schmidt-Tarub, H.2005. Preparative chromatography of fine chemicals and pharmaceutical agents. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. kGaA, Germany. Pp131 (3) Still, W.C., Kahn, M., Mitra, A., 1978. Rapid chromatographic technique for preparative separations with moderate resolution. The Journal of Organic Chemistry.  43  (14). pp 2923-2925. (4) Poole, C.F. 2003. The essence of chromatography. Elsevier, United State of America. Pp.337 (5) Heftman, E. 2004. Chromatography 6th edition fundamentals and applications of chromatography and related differential migration methods. Elsevier, Netherlands. Pp. 549. Questions What would happen if the level of the solvent in your TLC chamber was higher than the spots at the bottom of your TLC plate? If the level of the solvent in the TLC chamber was higher than the spots at the bottom of the TLC plate then the spots would dissolve away. If the level of the solvent in the TLC chamber is deeper than the baseline, then the solvent will dissolve the compounds instead of allowing them to ascend the thin layer by capillary action. If this were to occur, in the end you would not see the spots after the plate is developed. As a drawing exercise, provide the structures of the dyes used in this experiment.**Knowing what you saw in class about intermolecular interactions, circle the groups on each molecule that are liable to interact with the partially acidic, surface Alà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ OH and Sià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  OH groups on alumina or silica in neutral solvent. Fluorescein: Molecules that are liable to interact with the partially acidic, surface Al- OH and Si- OH Methylene Blue: One of the solvents used contained aqueous NaOH. This will generate Alà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ O- and Sià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ O- groups on alumina or silica, and these will be in competition with the solvent for interactions with the analyte. What will this solvent do to the mobility of the dyes? Although the experiment you performed used the most common chromatography techniques, there are many other types of chromatography. One technique is called ion exchange chromatography, especially useful in biochemical work. Briefly describe the principle behind ion exchange chromatography and what it can accomplish. Ion exchange chromatography is a separation technique based on charges. It is used to separate ions and other charged molecules. There are two types of ion exchange chromatography, cation exchange chromatography and anion exchange chromatography. In cation exchange chromatography positively charged molecules are attracted to a negatively charged solid support and in anion exchange chromatography, negatively charged molecules are attracted to a positively charged solid support 4. In ion exchange chromatography the mobile phase, usually water or an organic solvent, is of low conductivity, which helps in the binding of the molecules 4. As the compound is passed through, like charges repel and elute first and opposite charges attract and elute last. The strength of the interaction is determined by the number and location of the charges on the molecule and on the functional group.  By increasing the salt concentration the molecules with the weakest ionic interactions start to elute from the column first 4. This type of chromatography is essentially important in the separating and isolating carbohydrates. It is also important in separating small inorganic and organic ions 5.

Types Of Substitution Reactions Biology Essay

Types Of Substitution Reactions Biology Essay In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group .In organic chemistry, the electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution reactions are of main importance. Organic substitution reactions are classified into depending on whether the reagent that brings about the substitution is considered an electrophile or a nucleophile, whether a reactive intermediate involved in the reaction is a carbocation, a carbanion or a free radical or whether the substrate is aliphatic or aromatic. A reaction can be made faster or slower by taking into consideration the temperature and the solvent we are using.A good example of a substitution reaction is the photochemical chlorination of methane forming methyl chloride. Nucleophilic substitution What is a nucleophile Nucleophilic substitution happens when the reagent is a nucleophile, which means the attacking species is a nucleus loving species .it is itself negatively charged or has a lone pair. Such species get attracted to positive or electron deficient carbon centres.. A nucleophile reacts with an aliphatic substrate in a nucleophilic aliphatic substitution reaction. These substitutions can be of two dofferent mechanisms: unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1) and bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2). The SN1 mechanism has two steps. In the first step, the leaving group leaves, forming a carbocation. In the second step, the nucleophilic species attacks the carbocation and forms a sigma bond. This mechanism can result in either inversion or retention of configuration. An SN2 reaction has just one step. The attack of the reagent and the expulsion of the leaving group occurs simultaneously. This mechanism always results in inversion of configuration. When the substrate is an aromatic compound the reaction type is nucleophilic aromatic substitution. Electrophilic substitutions What is an electrophile An electrophile is a electron loving species, it itself is positively charged and wants to stabilize itself by making a sigma bond with the electron rich carbon centre. Electrophiles are involved in electrophilic substitution reactions and particularly in electrophilic aromatic substitutions. SN1 REACTION The SN1 reaction is a substitution reaction. SN means nucleophilic substitution and the 1 represents the fact that the rate-determining step is unimolecular . Carbocation intermediate is formed in this reaction .It is seen that tertiary carbocations are very stable due to + I effect and thus go for SN1 Reaction. With primary alkyl halides, the alternative SN2 reaction occurs. As primary Alkyl Halides mostly Form primary carbocation which is very unstable and thus have to go through SN2 Substitution reaction. Mechanism An example of a reaction taking place with an SN1 reaction mechanism is the hydrolysis of tert-butyl bromide with water forming tert-butyl alcohol: This SN1 reaction takes place in three steps: Formation of a tert-butyl carbocation by separation of a leaving group (a bromide anion) from the carbon atom: this step is slow and reversible. Nucleophilic attack: the carbocation reacts with the nucleophile. If the nucleophile is a neutral molecule (i.e. a solvent) a third step is required to complete the reaction. When the solvent is water, the intermediate is an oxonium ion. This reaction step is fast. Deprotonation: Removal of a proton on the protonated nucleophile by water acting as a base forming the alcohol and a hydronium ion. This reaction step is fast. WHY THIS REACTION OCCURS Bulky atoms(methyl, ethyl) surrounding the carbon atoms mostly allow SNI reaction. As the bulky alkyl halides are attached to the central carbon atom,it is both stabilized by hyperconjugation and +In ductive effect. The SN1 mechanism therefore dominates in reactions at tertiary alkyl centers and is further observed at secondary alkyl centers in the presence of weak nucleophiles. SN2 REACTION The SN2 reaction (also known as bimolecular nucleophilic substitution or as backside attack) is a type of nucleophilic substitution, where a lone pair from a nucleophile attacks an electron deficient electrophilic center and bonds to it, expelling another group called a leaving group. Thus the incoming group replaces the leaving group in one step. Since two reacting species are involved in the slow, rate-determining step of the reaction, this leads to the name bimolecular nucleophilic substitution, or SN2. Among inorganic chemists, the SN2 reaction is often known as the interchange mechanism. REACTION MECHANISM The reaction most often occurs at an aliphatic sp3 carbon center with an electronegative, stable leaving group attached to it X frequently a halide atom. The breaking of the C-X bond and the formation of the new C-Nu bond occur simultaneously to form a transition state in which the carbon under nucleophilic attack is pentacoordinate, and approximately sp2 hybridised. The nucleophile attacks the carbon at 180 to the leaving group, since this provides the best overlap between the nucleophiles lone pair and the C-X s* antibonding orbital. The leaving group is then pushed off the opposite side and the product is formed. If the substrate under nucleophilic attack is chiral, this can lead, although not necessarily, to an inversion of stereochemistry, called the Walden inversion. SN2 reaction of bromoethane with hydroxide ion. The products are ethanol and a bromide ion. In an example of the SN2 reaction, the attack of OH- (the nucleophile) on a bromoethane (the electrophile) results in ethanol, with bromide ejected as the leaving group. SN2 attack occurs if the backside route of attack is not sterically hindered by substituents on the substrate. Therefore this mechanism usually occurs at an unhindered primary carbon centre. If there is steric crowding on the substrate near the leaving group, such as at a tertiary carbon centre, the substitution will involve an SN1 rather than an SN2 mechanism, (an SN1 would also be more likely in this case because a sufficiently stable carbocation intermediary could be formed.) In coordination chemistry, associative substitution proceeds via a similar mechanism as SN2. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION 1) The Basicity of the Leaving Group. By comparing the relative SN2 reaction rates of compounds with atoms in the same periodic group (the halides, for example), results show that the ability as a leaving group during an SN2 reaction depends on its basicity. In general, the weaker the basicity of a group, the greater its leaving ability. For example, the iodide ion is a very weak base and because it is so, it is the most reactive. Weak bases do not hold their electrons tightly, making it easier for their bonds to be broken. In contrast, the fluoride ion is a stronger base than the other halides and, therefore, the least reactive. In fact, the fluoride ion is such a strong base that compounds involving them essentially do not undergo SN2 reaction. Looking at the periodic table, relative basicity decreases down a group. (Stronger Base) F- > Cl- > Br- > I- (Weaker Base) 2) The Size of the Nucleophile. How readily a compound attacks an electron-deficient atom also affects an SN2 reaction. As a rule, a negatively charged species (e.g. OH -) are better nucleophiles than neutral species (e.g. H2O, water). There is a direct relationship between basicity and nucleophilicity: stronger bases are better nucleophiles. Acidity, the ability of an atom to give up a proton (H+), is comparatively relative in molecules whose attacking atoms are approximately the same in size, the weakest going toward the left side of the periodic table. If hydrogen were attached to second-row elements of the periodic table, the resulting compounds would have the following relative acidities: (Weaker Acid) NH3 If each of these acids were to give up a hydrogen, the result would be its conjugate base, and the relative strengths will reverse. The stronger base now moves toward the left side of the periodic table. (Stronger Base) -NH2 > HO- > F- (Weaker Base) Elements increase in size down the periodic table. Although basicity decreases down the periodic table, nucleophilicity increases as size increases depending on the solvent used. 3) Solvent. If a reaction is carried out in a protic solvent, whose molecules have a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen or to a nitrogen, the larger atom is a better nucleophile in an SN2 reaction. In other words, the weaker base is the better nucleophile in a protic solvent. For example, the iodide ion is better than a fluoride ion as a nucleophile. However, if the reaction is carried out in an aprotic solvent, whose molecules do not have hydrogen bonded to an oxygen or to a nitrogen, then the stronger base is the better nucleophile. In this case, the fluoride ion is better than the iodide ion as a nucleophile. 4) Sterics. Steric hindrance is any effect of a compound due to the size and/or arrangement of its substituent groups. Steric effects affect nucleophilicity but does not affect base strength. A bulky nucleophile, such as a tert-butoxide ion with its specific arrangement of methyl groups, is a poorer nucleophile than an ethoxide ion with a straighter chain of carbons, even though tert-butoxide is a stronger base.

Free Glass Menagerie Essays: The Characters’ Weaknesses and Strengths :: Glass Menagerie essays

The Characters' Weaknesses and Strengths in The Glass Menagerie In an interview, Tennessee Williams once said, "I have always been more interested in creating a character that contains something crippled... They have a certain appearance of fragility, these neurotic people I write about, but they are really strong." In Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie, the strengths and weaknesses of the characters is the focus of the play. There have been several critics who have raised interesting points concerning this subject. Critic Judith J. Thompson takes the stance that Amanda's "embodiment of 'The Great Mother'" is blinded by her weakness of an unrealistic world (p. 17). She states that Amanda's character is made up of "the Good Mother, the Terrible Mother, the seductive young witch, and the innocent virgin" (Thompson 17). She supports her theory with the incident in which Amanda says that she had seventeen gentlemen callers in one day. Thompson goes on to say that the "exaggeration of the number of Amanda's beaux recalls fairy tale and legends of romance in which the princess is beleaguered by suitors until the ideal knight or prince returns" (17). Here, Thompson shows that Amanda's weakness is living in a sort of dream world which overwhelms her intentions of being a "Great Mother" (Thompson 17). A second critic, Joseph K. Davis, takes the stance that Laura's weakness overpowers her ability to be sensitive. Davis divides the dramatic pattern of The Glass Menagerie into two parts. Part of the pattern is "the dramatization of men and women by a display of their fragmented, tortured psychologies" (Davis 192). He states in his analysis of The Glass Menagerie: "His [Tom's] sister Laura tries to live in the present, but her crippled body and grim prospects in the secretarial school overcame her fragile sensibilities" (194). Davis implies that, like Amanda, Laura's weakness consumes her ability to live in reality and her sensibility, her one strength. A third critic, Tom Scanlan takes the stance that Tom's weakness is overcome by his strength. Tom is easily entrapped and persuaded into situations that he may or may not want to be which weakens his character but his strength is greater than this weakness. The critic states that "the reappearance of Tom as narrator force the reader back to the present" (Scanlan 99). He shows the reader that Tom's strength is the ability to keep in touch with reality. Free Glass Menagerie Essays: The Characters’ Weaknesses and Strengths :: Glass Menagerie essays The Characters' Weaknesses and Strengths in The Glass Menagerie In an interview, Tennessee Williams once said, "I have always been more interested in creating a character that contains something crippled... They have a certain appearance of fragility, these neurotic people I write about, but they are really strong." In Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie, the strengths and weaknesses of the characters is the focus of the play. There have been several critics who have raised interesting points concerning this subject. Critic Judith J. Thompson takes the stance that Amanda's "embodiment of 'The Great Mother'" is blinded by her weakness of an unrealistic world (p. 17). She states that Amanda's character is made up of "the Good Mother, the Terrible Mother, the seductive young witch, and the innocent virgin" (Thompson 17). She supports her theory with the incident in which Amanda says that she had seventeen gentlemen callers in one day. Thompson goes on to say that the "exaggeration of the number of Amanda's beaux recalls fairy tale and legends of romance in which the princess is beleaguered by suitors until the ideal knight or prince returns" (17). Here, Thompson shows that Amanda's weakness is living in a sort of dream world which overwhelms her intentions of being a "Great Mother" (Thompson 17). A second critic, Joseph K. Davis, takes the stance that Laura's weakness overpowers her ability to be sensitive. Davis divides the dramatic pattern of The Glass Menagerie into two parts. Part of the pattern is "the dramatization of men and women by a display of their fragmented, tortured psychologies" (Davis 192). He states in his analysis of The Glass Menagerie: "His [Tom's] sister Laura tries to live in the present, but her crippled body and grim prospects in the secretarial school overcame her fragile sensibilities" (194). Davis implies that, like Amanda, Laura's weakness consumes her ability to live in reality and her sensibility, her one strength. A third critic, Tom Scanlan takes the stance that Tom's weakness is overcome by his strength. Tom is easily entrapped and persuaded into situations that he may or may not want to be which weakens his character but his strength is greater than this weakness. The critic states that "the reappearance of Tom as narrator force the reader back to the present" (Scanlan 99). He shows the reader that Tom's strength is the ability to keep in touch with reality.

Euripides Support of Women’s Rights Essay -- Biography Biographies Ess

Euripides Support of Women’s Rights      Ã‚  Ã‚   One can hardly deny that in Euripides’ plays women are often portrayed as weak, uncertain, and torn between what they must do and what they can bring themselves to do.   Other women appear to be the root of grave evils, or simply perpetrators of heinous crimes.   In a day when analysis of characters and plot had yet to be invented, it is easy to see why he might have been thought to be very much against women.   However, when looking back with current understanding of what Euripides was doing at the time, armed with knowledge of plot devices and Socratic philosophy, this argument simply does not hold up.   In fact, a very strong argument can be made to the opposite, that Euripides was in fact very much in support of women’s rights, and thought they were treated unfairly.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To begin to understand what Euripides was doing, it is best to understand the medium of his art: the Greek theater.   Theater was a competitive art among playwrights, with several competitions throughout the year, the greatest of which was at the Dionysian festivals in the spring.   Greek drama, tragedy in particular, had little in common with modern acting productions.   There was little or no suspense as to the outcome of the play; most all were based on Homeric tales from The Iliad and The Odyssey.   The skill, therefore, was not in creating a fascinating plot, but in the subtle changes the playwright could incorporate to increase the dramatic effect.   Changing the reasons for conflicts, dialogue, order of events, and sometimes even the outcome of the play were all ways to do this.   With all these devices available to the fifth century playwright, what made Euripides so special that he was almost exclusiv... ... Euripides. Medea. Trans. Paul Roche. New York: Norton, 1974. Euripides. The Bacchae. Trans. Paul Roche. New York: Norton, 1974. Euripides. Andromache. Trans. John McLean. New York: Dial Press, 1936. Euripides. Hippolytos. Trans. John McLean. New York: Dial Press, 1936. Euripides. Trojan Women. Trans. John McLean. New York: Dial Press, 1936. Euripides. Electra. Trans. John McLean. New York: Dial Press, 1936. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Trans. Clifton Fadiman. New York: Dover Publications, 1995. Perseus Encyclopedia. Revised 1999. Tufts University. www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia?entry=Euripides>. Powell, Anton, ed.   Euripides, Women, and Sexuality.   New York: Routledge, 1990. March, Jennifer.   â€Å"Euripides the Mysogynist?†Ã‚   Euripides, Women, and Sexuality.   Ed. Anton Powell.   New York: Routledge, 1990.

Marginal images – the potentials and limitations.

What are the potencies and restrictions of the fringy image?Why do fringy images exist? Before the traditional signifier of the book emerged in manuscript signifier, thoughts and events were codified onto coils. Because they were one uninterrupted axial rotation of stuff it was necessary to make divisions between the text and the border was the most practical and aesthetically pleasing solution. Medieval bookmans would hold to warrant the text by manus in order to heighten the aesthetic quality. Books of Hours are a common illustration of both cloistered authorship and the fringy image. Their intent was to aid people ‘s day-to-day supplications ; frequently merely including the first lines of certain supplications, anthem and extracts from the Bible, in peculiar the Psalms. Although originally for members of the clergy and the cloistered community, the wealthier categories started commissioning them to better their position. Marguerite ‘s Hours is a peculiarly utile illustration – a cardinal image shows the three Magi at Bethlehem, one points to a star. In the border we see the frequenter kneeling outside the cardinal infinite, she can non come in as it is holy. Around are monkeys or babewyns ( this term covers all composite animals ) and they reflect the actions of those in the cardinal image. Camille discusses the beginning of their presence: in Gallic ape is le scorch, really near to le signe. Monkeys hence signify representation itself. Their presence besides pertains to the head of a courtier – neither a profane or sacred province of head reflects their life at tribunal. Marguerite is concentrating her attending on the holy infinite but is still in the & A ; lsquo ; carnival ‘ border. At first glimpse the fringy images seem incoherent following to the cardinal 1s. Camille suggests that the images were a verbal and ocular manner for elect audiences [ 1 ] . He besides explain s that borders merely became an country for art when text as a cue for address was replaced by text as a written papers for its ain interest. Fringy imagination became more of import due to this different usage of text – words needed to be recognised more easy taking to a decreased amplification of the initials. Camille suggests that the frequently amusing nature of the images originates from the large-scale production of the texts – errors were bound to happen and the illuminators took advantage of this. In the Ormesby Psalter, Camille shows that people & A ; lsquo ; enjoyed ambiguity ‘ [ 2 ] as it is easier to bask and esteem the sacred when it can be contrasted with the profane. For illustration, there is a nun in the Psalter who is used to stand for the deficiency of celibacy in monasticism. She should be like the Virgin Mary yet she suckles a monkey, the scorch, doing the image a monstrous mark of the nun ‘s human wickedness. Maps besides offer an penetration into fringy images and the positions of the people who commissioned them. Friedman explains that there are two types of map: the Noachid or T-O map, a cosmogonic and theological map of the universe with & A ; lsquo ; ethnological purpose ‘ [ 3 ] ; and Macrobian which is region-centred and concerned with clime, taking to & A ; lsquo ; utmost people in utmost topographic points ‘ [ 4 ] . In Noachid maps, Jerusalem is the theological and geographical Centre of the universe. In Freidman ‘s illustration, the Hereford map ( c.1290 ) Jesus is at the top, or East of the map. It is the same in the Ebstorf map ( c.1240 ) , caput in the East, hands in the North and South and Feet in the West. Both maps have a set of & A ; lsquo ; monstrous races ‘ clustered at the border ( s ) of the map – they about appear pushed at that place. In the Hereford map, there are some of these races in the North, they are held back by Alexander Ã¢â‚¬Ë œs Gate of Brass to & A ; lsquo ; forestall the dirty peoples from nearing the Centre in the same manner the Nile confines the Plinian [ southern ] races ‘ [ 5 ] . Macrobian maps are wholly different as they illustrate climatic differences including a conjectural 2nd temperate zone in the Antipodes ( opposite-footed or Southern part ) . This poses sever fringy and doctrinal jobs – the Antipodes was an country which had the possible to host temperate peoples merely like themselves in the West, yet how would they hold a impression of their Godhead, the Christian God while they remained strictly conjectural? This type of map projected a general thought that morality and the visual aspect of monstrous races were due to habitat. Friedman offers descriptions of the Plinian Races which in our eyes is about amusive. The term Plinian originates from Greek and Roman descriptions. Pliny, being a Stoic, oversimplified the races, increasing their restrictions of accurate description s of them. Over the centuries new races were created by dividing and uniting bing 1s – the mediaeval people enjoyed big Numberss of them. However there are immense restrictions in their representations: why did n't the overdone representations disappear when coevalss went at that place? Friedman suggests that there was a psychological demand, to exert their imaginativenesss, to advance the fright of the unknown to maintain people faithful. Another ground is that some of the races really existed – pigmies, matriarchal & A ; lsquo ; Amazon ‘ societies and the Amyctyrae, perchance based on the Ubangi tribal usage of lip-stretching. He besides says that the description of the sciapod may hold been due to the extraordinary airss of yoga. Such mistakes in perceptual experience lead to decrease in the potency of such images. Cohen looks in to the thought of the fright of the unknown in the signifier of the Donestre. It illustrates the misperception and the psychological demands of & A ; lsquo ; others ‘ . Medieval people were marginal obsessed with unusual people. The Donestre represents the & A ; lsquo ; other ‘ who can place with you but has the power to transform you into a portion of itself. & A ; lsquo ; The Donestre transubstantiates the adult male ‘ [ 6 ] . Such representations reinforce the thought that the profane being utilised to heighten the sacred. Anglo-saxon England contained a intercrossed people [ 7 ] – the Donestre became of a form of & A ; lsquo ; a organic structure that absorbs difference without wholly cut downing or absorbing it ‘ [ 8 ] , a utile tool to reflect their intercrossed society and themselves within it. Maps and monstrous races offer the restrictions of fringy images of the other – faraway races which were non encountered everyday. They are limited as the medieval people fabricated or misinterpreted many of them. They do hold some possible nevertheless, as they provide an penetration into the mediaeval projection of the other and their position of themselves, for case the fright of being like those races and utilizing themselves to show or reassure themselves of their high quality. Marginalised Hebrews are wholly different as they were the seeable other within society. Art is non a mirror of historical society but it can intercede for us. In fringy images, harmonizing to Strickland, they were legally-bound to be identifiable within the crowd, they are frequently shown have oning odd-shaped chapeaus. This differentiation was required as, unlike Muslims or monstrous races, Jews were non easy to separate on a strictly ocular footing. Rubin explores Christian representations of host profanation ; in most rhythms they originate from a Parisian image- typically a Jew persuades a Christian adult female to steal the host from Mass and convey it to him in exchange for a garment. The Jew ( s ) proceed to knife the host to prove it as the organic structure of Jesus. This presents jobs in itself ; Jews did non accept Jesus as their Messiah so why would they experience the demand to prove it? The host begins to shed blood after they stab it, as the organic structure of Chri st this echoes or repeats the crucifixion which happened at the custodies of the Jews. The desecrators so seek to destruct it by firing, boiling or concealing it. However an phantom of Christ in assorted signifiers will emerge taking to either the host being found or Christians walk in during the phantom. The Jews are normally converted by what they have witnessed. This is due to a new focal point on the Eucharist and liturgical jobs the fold faced – it was hard to understand transubstantiation. The clergy could utilize these images to demo that if even Jews could be converted it would be foolish non to believe in the true organic structure and blood of Christ. Even after the Jews in the narratives convert they would normally be punished or executed. Hebrews were capable to force and humiliation throughout the mediaeval period, Christian images reinforce this outlook. Strickland besides talks about a thirteenth-century image showing the narrative of Theophilus, a Christian churchman who outwitted the Devil. In the image, a papers is passed to the Devil by a Jew. His facial characteristics are no different to the Christian but his chapeau identifies him. This image pertains to the thought that this Jew acted as an intermediary between Theophilus and the Devil. The Jew appears affluent, possibly due to the wickedness of vigorish, beef uping the statement of his association to the Devil. It is clear that Christians used art to project a negative image of Jews. It makes us inquire why they tolerated their presence in their society if they were so repulsed by them. Although we do cognize that England sent all Jews into exile some old ages subsequently. For me the most interesting fringy art is that made by Jews within this mostly Christian society. Harmonizing to Epstein, the Jews were present in mundane society but did non absorb to the full, taking to involvement anomalousnesss in lighted manuscripts. He besides points out that there are three variables for the manuscripts: did Judaic creative persons illuminate them? Did Christian artists light them? Does it non matter which artist as the frequenter may non hold allowed any free reign? Epstein talks about the thought of following and accommodating which is what a Judaic illuminator would make – accommodating recognized Christian iconography to accommodate a Judaic intent in a elusive manner. If Christians were lighting so & amp ; lsquo ; mediaeval Judaic art ‘ can non be, as they would hold conformed to acceptable traditions as good. The statement in basically inconclusive: the fact that the text is Hebrew does n't govern out a Christian creative person in the same manner that stylistic similarities do n't govern out a Judaic 1. Why would a Christian agree to do art for a Judaic intent, particularly if it was an anti-Christian one? Did the Jews non gain Christian creative persons were enforcing their conventions on them or was it strictly assimilation? It is possible that the Christians did n't gain what they were painting due to them non reading Hebrew. It is really of import to gain that these images were created for a Judaic audience, that is why it is & A ; lsquo ; Judaic art ‘ . They were to the full cognizant of Christian modern-day art and their unpopularity in society, so possibly by conforming to traditions they could defy in a less open mode. Strauss argues that erudite Jews would be able to decode the symbolic linguistic communication created which would protect the community from Christian persecution. Epstein discusses the fabrication of the fox and the fish which promotes the thought of the weak get the better ofing the str ong & A ; lsquo ; If we are afraid in the component in which we live, how much more so should we be in the component in which we would decease! ‘ [ 9 ] Animal symbols in the borders are really interesting as they show what the marginalised parts of society do with their ain borders. The hare-hunter is really utile in footings of animate being symbolism. In Hebraism it is out to run so why would a Judaic adult male return place with a non-kosher hare? Epstein discusses the thought that it may hold come from a similarity between Hebrew and Jewish words – it is non intended to be an amusive mnemonic but an identifiable symbol of the Jews as the hare, the prey. It allows them to keep their positive self-perception, necessary since the flight from Egypt as they can utilize such images to parallel modern-day societal fortunes. To summarize Epstein positions on & A ; lsquo ; Judaic mediaeval art ‘ it seems it provided a safe blowhole to let go of choler, hidden behind th e non-vernacular Hebrew, choler about expatriate and persecution while looking to accept the state of affairs on the surface. By analyzing art as a safety valve it can assist us understand Judaic self-perception and their internalized positions as a Western Medieval minority. In decision it seems the art of these Jews seems to hold the most possible in footings of fringy art. That is to state it gives a personal and & A ; lsquo ; honest ‘ penetration into their ideas. The jobs or restrictions of all the other signifiers discussed in the essay are they come from one western position, projecting positions onto others which will ever restrict their authorization.BibliographyM. Camille, Image on the Edge: The Margins of Medieval Art, ( London: Reaktion Books, 1992 ) M. Camille, The Gothic Idol: Political orientation and Image-Making in Medieval Art, ( Cambridge: Up, 1989 ) J.B. Friedman, The Monstrous Race in Mediaeval Art and Thought, ( Cambridge: Mass, 1981 ) J.J. Cohen, Monsters, Cannibalism, and the Fragile Body in Early England, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.gwu.edu/~humsci/facpages/cannibal.html D.B. Strickland, Saracens, Demons, and Hebrews: Making Monsters in Medieval Art, ( Princeton: Up, 2003 ) M. Rubin, Gentile Tales, The Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews, ( Yale: Up, 1999 ) M.M. Epstein, Dreams of Subversion in Medieval Art and Literature, ( University Park, Pennsylvania: Up, 1997 ) [ 1 ] Camille p. 13 [ 2 ] Camille p. 28 [ 3 ] Friedman p. 42 [ 4 ] Friedman p. 42 [ 5 ] Friedman p. 45 [ 6 ] Cohen p. 2 [ 7 ] Cohen p. 3 [ 8 ] Cohen p. 3 [ 9 ] Epstein p. 9

Economic Interdependence Essay

Between 1939 and 1945, World War II took the lives of over 60 million people worldwide, making it the deadliest military conflict in the history of mankind. These statistics are so staggering that if famine were hypothetically eradicated from the earth, war would stand as the largest executioner of mankind. With that in mind, it would be safe to assume that today’s global leaders are in no way in favor of engaging in an armed conflict with another nation. Sadly, this is not necessarily the case we see in reality; wars are still being fought to attain fundamental components such as territory or political freedom. There are, however, theoretical aspects in today’s globalized society that allows political leaders to prevent military disputes from occurring in the first place. The question then becomes: is it possible to prevent or diminish war onset between dyads and if so, how? It is important to ask this question mainly because war is still very much a relevant aspect in our current international system. From the Gulf War to the War on Terror in the Middle East, military conflict seems to be the go-to option for a country seeking to achieve their goal when no other choice seems viable. In essence, war still occurs even in the relatively evolved society we currently inhabit because it has historically proved that brute force is at times the only practical option. The American Revolutionary War, for example, demonstrated that the colonies did not have the luxury of simply claiming their independence from Britain. The colonists had no choice but to fight for their freedom in order to become independent. Such historical instances demonstrate what war can accomplish, thus justifying why countries save war as a last resort. The majority of the time, however, military disputes are not the best course of action to undergo so finding a way to prevent war is a nation’s best alternative. By no means does this question have a definitive answer since war is a highly perplex, multi-faceted phenomenon but I will attempt to propose the best strategy leaders can take to reduce the possibility of war. In this paper I will call attention to several theoretical answers to the research question above, each with their own advantages and faults. The possible solutions to decrease military conflicts between dyads are based upon the governmental aspects of each country – such as regime type or levels of trade – and their influence on the relationship with another nation. The most recognized theories that could reduce the likelihood of war are the Democratic peace theory, balance of power theory and the commercial peace theory. The validity of each of these theories will be outlined to highlight their potential to help dyads avoid armed conflict. However, the latter theory will be the focus of this paper as my hypothesis stems from the belief that an increase in economic interdependence within a dyad leads to an overall decrease in militarized interstate disputes (MIDs) between that dyad. In order to validate my argument, I will first make an argument for each theory and then continue by creating a case that trade truly diminishes war. First, the Democratic peace theory is defined as a theory in political science and philosophy which holds that democracies—specifically, liberal democracies—almost never go to war with one another (Gartzke 2000). The idea behind ‘democracies do not fight one another’ is sustained by the fact that when two democracies confront one another in conflicts of interest, they are able to effectively employ democratic bargaining in their interaction, which then prevents most disagreements from escalating to a military conflict. In a struggle between democracies, by the time the two states are militarily ready for war, diplomats have had the opportunity to find a nonviolent solution to the dispute (Gartzke 2000). The concept behind democratic peace bears a close resemblance to a ‘them vs. us’ mentality. Countries take more into account what other likeminded states think of them over the ones with a completely different structure and ideals; it is easier to rally with people of the same beliefs. Nations that share democratic principles will be more concerned with pushing that same mindset and threatened by opposing regimes extending their reach, thus leading democracies to rely on each other. It is more beneficial being on the same side, than it is against one another. Unfortunately, the Democratic peace theory begins to start falling apart at the seams once you take into consideration the foundation that defines democratic peace. The first problems stems from the inaccurate definition of democracy, which calls into question the alleged evidence in support of the theory. Methodology used in collecting data to test whether or not a country is democratic is unscientific and democracies have been involved in conflict with each other at a much higher rate than what the proponents have determined. Even if the definition of democracies were accurately outlined, the current data would still be insufficient to establish a causal link between the democratic political institutions of a state and the frequency with which that state will engage in conflicts with other democracies (Layne 1994). The relative peace between democracies may just as well be the consequence of the international power structure of recent decades. If such is true, the very foundation of the democratic peace theory collapses. Next, the balance of power theory centers on the idea that when one nation or coalition increases its power or employ it more assertively, threatened states will respond by increasing their own power, usually by creating a counter-balancing alliance. Since the rise of major players in the international system, e. g. he United States, the balance of power among the most powerful states has been a delicate aspect that can potentially create complications or prevent them altogether. For example, if China were to somehow generate enough momentum and overthrow the United States in terms of global power, the US would most likely become agitated and retaliate with armed force. Alternatively, it can also act as a component for peace; a defeated nation can receive leniency from the major power and allow them to reestablish themselves prior to their conflict. The most important factor affecting the relation between the distribution of power and the likelihood of war is whether the terms of a compromise agreement that might be accepted in lieu of war affect the relative power of the antagonists and therefore the probability that the agreement will be enforced (Wagner 1994). Thus the relationship one can expect between the distribution of power and the likelihood of war depends on the specific instances that a dyad is faced with. The problem with the balance of power theory is that it is prone to security dilemmas, a concept that is generally integrated within the balance of power. With security dilemmas, none can feel at ease because both sides of a dyad want to match their power to the other, creating a never-ending quest for power. A nation’s possession of power – no matter how much the state tries to guarantee others that it is for defensive purposes only – will likely result in fear and/or suspicion from the opposing side. Thus, military disputes are expected to occur even when political â€Å"motives† for war – like territorial disputes, revenge, etc. – are absent. Nineteenth century Europe fosters many examples of how security dilemmas and balance of power created tension between states. The lack of overall authority in Europe meant that a self-help system of alliance and military force dominated the region (Wagner 1994). The justification touted by states to acquire military force was constantly outfitted as a solution of a threat to the equilibrium of the international system, which in turn validates the idea that balance of power theory acted as a cause of war in the nineteenth century. While democratic peace and balance of power theories offer intriguing premises to prevent war, they fall short in the end. Although there are several potential answers to the research question, I believe the truest method of inhibiting military disputes between two nations lies within the dyad’s economic interdependency. When it comes to the effect of economic interdependency among states, political experts are torn between two explanations. More specifically, states that are interdependent are either believed to be less likely to initiate militarized conflict – the liberal approach – or follow the realist view where bilateral trade doesn’t necessarily lead to conflict mitigation. There is compelling data on both sides of this argument but extensive research has led me to believe that the liberal perspective of trade follows this relationship more closely. The economic relationship that states share is imperative in determining whether or not they will uphold peace in order to facilitate greater benefits in the future. Economic interdependence, as explained by Gartzke, has multiple facets that embody this relationship between a dyad such as trade share, trade dependence and trade openness. Gartzke finds that these variables each have their distinct relationship with dyadic conflict, demonstrating that trade dependence and openness both decrease the probability of MID onset (2003). He notes that trade share, however, coincides with Barbieri’s findings, which indicates an increased probability for MID onset. Barbieri supports the conservative approach and states â€Å"although war sometimes leads to a temporary decline in the level of dyadic trade, in most instances war has no permanent long-term effect on trading relationships and, in fact, trade often increases in the postwar period† (Barbieri 1999). Even though Barbieri’s study makes a compelling argument, there is more evidence to support the claim that bilateral trading diminishes the chance of militarized disputes since trade mediates any tension that exists and reinforces their relationship at the international level. Nations, as rational actors in the diplomatic system, will consider trade agreements accordingly with other nations in order to gain goods and services to increase the well being of their state. This relationship between states is an important factor that will determine their rate of trade and whether or not they go to war with one another. Rational choice says that if the state is indeed rational, then their preferences are stable and transitive so they will always prefer to diminish any chance of war while at the same time benefiting from dyadic trade. Trade acts as a stabilizing force between the dyad and will prefer positive reinforcement (i. e. trade) versus negative reinforcement (i. e. war), hence transitivity. Rational choice therefore leads to the utility maximizing concept where states weigh the pros and cons of waging war on a state where mutual trade agreements take place. States will consider the most beneficial trades to maximize their gain but will also contemplate even the most miniscule trades in order to accelerate the possibility of greater trade in the future. The expectations of future trade impact the expected value of the trading option if a state decides to forgo war (Copeland 1996). In other words, although economic exchange may not offer immediate substantial gains, prospective trade opportunities prevent states from initiating conflict. Trade allows states to mutually benefit from one another while states that don’t trade gain nothing. Reed argues, â€Å"trading states can expect to gain less from a militarized clash than would nontrading states and, as a result, are more likely to accept a bargained outcome short of militarized conflict† (2003). If that benefit were no longer being exchanged, i. e. , trade, then the trading states would rather resolve their issue through negotiations rather than militarized conflict to continue receiving the benefit. In other words, the aforementioned relationship between trading and interstate conflict describes my causal process where an increase in bilateral trade leads to a decrease in MIDs. By choosing to exchange goods and/or services with states regardless of their contribution size, they are directly diminishing the probability of going to war with the opposing state. Alternatively, the relationship is reversed when trade is absent between a dyad since there is nothing to inhibit one another from attacking. Another benefit that comes from high levels of commercial exchange is described as the ‘information-maximizing’ theory: a belief that bilateral trade not only produces benefits from tangible goods but also intangible benefits such as increased information, which reduces the likelihood of hostility between the dyad (Reed 2003). Economic interdependence mitigates the effect of uncertainty through transparency and full disclosure agreements that lead to an enhanced probability of settlement short of militarized conflict. Interdependent states prefer the benefits gained from trade – tangible or intangible – because it allows the states to become more informed on their opponents’ costs of war than would nontrading states. Even when existing commercial exchange is low or non-existent, positive expectations for future trade will produce a positive expected value for trade, and therefore an incentive for continued peace. From 1971 to 1973 and in the late 1980s – the two main periods of cooperation between the Cold War superpowers – positive signs from U.  S. leaders led to trade being significantly increased, which coaxed the Soviets into a more cooperative relationship, reducing the probability of war (Copeland 1996). The Cold War exemplifies the idea that trade can act as a mediator, even among opposing superpowers. Trade agreements are effective means to ensure peaceful relationships among other states. Economic interdependency creates the ability to build beneficial trade arrangements, increasing state resources and improving the dyad’s collective relationship. The correlation between interdependence and MID onset is important not only for dyads that trade at higher levels but also for those with minimal trade amounts. Furthermore, the magnitude of trade does not play an influential role in determining the importance of the trade agreement since prospective gains always outweigh a militarized strike. If we ask ourselves again if it is possible to prevent or diminish war onset between dyads, it becomes clear that preventing military disputes stems from having a well established trade arrangement. It is irrelevant if the countries are both democracies or if they are similarly matched in military power – the only thing that really matters is whether a dyad exchanges goods and/or services. Consider the United States and China today; one is a democratic, military superpower while the other is a socialist state with no exceptional global power. Yet they share a relatively prosperous, mutually beneficial commercial relationship. No matter which way you view it, trade acts as the greatest approach for peace.